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Adriana María Belén Abiuso Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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María Luisa Varela Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Trinidad Raices Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Griselda Irusta Laboratory of Ovarian Physiology and Tumor Biology, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Juan Manuel Lazzati Endocrinology Service, Hospital de Pediatría ‘Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan’, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Marcos Besio Moreno Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Alina Cavallotti Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Alicia Belgorosky Endocrinology Service, Hospital de Pediatría ‘Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan’, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Omar Pedro Pignataro Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
Department of Biological Chemistry, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Esperanza Berensztein Endocrinology Service, Hospital de Pediatría ‘Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan’, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Carolina Mondillo Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Recent reports indicate an increase in Leydig cell tumor (LCT) incidence. Radical orchiectomy is the standard therapy in children and adults, although it entails physical and psychosocial side effects. Testis-sparing surgery can be a consideration for benign LCT of 2.5 cm or less in size. Malignant LCTs respond poorly to conventional chemotherapy, so new treatment modalities are needed. In this study, we observed increased histidine decarboxylase expression and pro-angiogenic potential in LCT surgically resected from pediatric patients (fetal to pubertal) vs control samples from patients without endocrine or metabolic disorders which were collected at necropsy. We, therefore, evaluated for the first time the antitumor efficacy of two histidine decarboxylase inhibitors (α-methyl-dl-histidine dihydrochloride (α-MHD) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)), alone and combined with carboplatin, in two preclinical models of LCT. MA-10 and R2C Leydig tumor cells, representing two different LCT subtypes, were used to generate syngeneic and xenograft mouse LCT models, respectively. In the syngeneic model, monotherapy with α-MHD effectively reduced tumor growth and angiogenesis. In the xenografts, which showed co-expression of histidine decarboxylase and CYP19, the combination of EGCG plus carboplatin was the most effective therapy, leading to LCT growth arrest and undetectable levels of plasmatic estradiol. Testicular and body weights remained unaltered. On the basis of this study, histidine decarboxylase may emerge as a novel pharmacological target for LCT treatment.

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Ying Sze Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, UK

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Joana Fernandes The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, UK

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Zofia M Kołodziejczyk Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Paula J Brunton Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, UK
Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, International Campus, Haining, Zhejiang, P.R. China

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Stress during pregnancy negatively affects the fetus and increases the risk for affective disorders in adulthood. Excess maternal glucocorticoids are thought to mediate fetal programming; however, whether they exert their effects directly or indirectly remains unclear. During pregnancy, protective mechanisms including maternal hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis hyporesponsiveness and placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11βHSD) type 2, which inactivates glucocorticoids, limit mother-to-fetus glucocorticoid transfer. However, whether repeated stress negatively impacts these mechanisms is not known. Pregnant rats were exposed to repeated social stress on gestational days (GD) 16–20 and several aspects of HPA axis and glucocorticoid regulation, including concentrations of glucocorticoids, gene expression for their receptors (Nr3c1, Nr3c2), receptor chaperones (Fkbp51, Fkbp52) and enzymes that control local glucocorticoid availability (Hsd11b1, Hsd11b2), were investigated in the maternal, placental and fetal compartments on GD20. The maternal HPA axis was activated following stress, though the primary driver was vasopressin, rather than corticotropin-releasing hormone. Despite the stress-induced increase in circulating corticosterone in the dams, only a modest increase was detected in the circulation of female fetuses, with no change in the fetal brain of either sex. Moreover, there was no change in the expression of genes that mediate glucocorticoid actions or modulate local concentrations in the fetal brain. In the placenta labyrinth zone, stress increased Hsd11b2 expression only in males and Fkbp51 expression only in females. Our results indicate that any role glucocorticoids play in fetal programming is likely indirect, perhaps through sex-dependent alterations in placental gene expression, rather than exerting effects via direct crossover into the fetal brain.

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Juan Bernal Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

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Beatriz Morte Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain

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Diego Diez Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

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Brain development is critically dependent on the timely supply of thyroid hormones. The thyroid hormone transporters are central to the action of thyroid hormones in the brain, facilitating their passage through the blood–brain barrier. Mutations of the monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8) cause the Allan–Herndon–Dudley syndrome, with altered thyroid hormone concentrations in the blood and profound neurological impairment and intellectual deficit. Mouse disease models have revealed interplay between transport, deiodination, and availability of T3 to receptors in specific cells. However, the mouse models are not satisfactory, given the fundamental differences between the mouse and human brains. The goal of the present work is to review human neocortex development in the context of thyroid pathophysiology. Recent developments in single-cell transcriptomic approaches aimed at the human brain make it possible to profile the expression of thyroid hormone regulators in single-cell RNA-Seq datasets of the developing human neocortex. The data provide novel insights into the specific cellular expression of thyroid hormone transporters, deiodinases, and receptors.

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Gabriel O de Souza Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Fernanda M Chaves Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Josiane N Silva Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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João A B Pedroso Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Martin Metzger Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Renata Frazão Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Jose Donato Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofisica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Recent studies indicated an important role of connexins, gap junction proteins, in the regulation of metabolism. However, most of these studies focused on the glial expression of connexins, whereas the actions of connexins in neurons are still poorly investigated. Thus, the present study had the objective to investigate the possible involvement of gap junctions, and in particular connexin 43 (CX43), for the central regulation of energy homeostasis. Initially, we demonstrated that hypothalamic CX43 expression was suppressed in fasted mice. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we showed that pharmacological blockade of gap junctions induced hyperpolarization and decreased the frequency of action potentials in 50–70% of agouti-related protein (AgRP)-expressing neurons, depending on the blocker used (carbenoxolone disodium, TAT-Gap19 or Gap 26). When recordings were performed with a biocytin-filled pipette, this intercellular tracer was detected in surrounding cells. Then, an AgRP-specific CX43 knockout (AgRPΔCX43) mouse was generated. AgRPΔCX43 mice exhibited no differences in body weight, adiposity, food intake, energy expenditure and glucose homeostasis. Metabolic responses to 24 h fasting or during refeeding were also not altered in AgRPΔCX43 mice. However, AgRPΔCX43 male, but not female mice, exhibited a partial protection against high-fat diet-induced obesity, even though no significant changes in energy intake or expenditure were detected. In summary, our findings indicate that gap junctions regulate the activity of AgRP neurons, and AgRP-specific CX43 ablation is sufficient to mildly prevent diet-induced obesity specifically in males.

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Jordan E Hamden Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Katherine M Gray Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Melody Salehzadeh Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Kiran K Soma Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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The profound programming effects of early life stress (ELS) on brain and behavior are thought to be primarily mediated by adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs). However, in mice, stressors are often administered between postnatal days 2 and 12 (PND2–12), during the stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP), when adrenal GC production is greatly reduced at baseline and in response to stressors. During the SHRP, specific brain regions produce GCs at baseline, but it is unknown if brain GC production increases in response to stressors. We treated mice at PND1 (pre-SHRP), PND5 (SHRP), PND9 (SHRP), and PND13 (post-SHRP) with an acute stressor (isoflurane anesthesia), vehicle control (oxygen), or neither (baseline). We measured a panel of progesterone and six GCs in the blood, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and hypothalamus via liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. At PND1, baseline corticosterone levels were high and did not increase in response to stress. At PND5, baseline corticosterone levels were very low, increases in brain corticosterone levels were greater than the increase in blood corticosterone levels, and stress had region-specific effects. At PND9, baseline corticosterone levels were low and increased similarly and moderately in response to stress. At PND13, blood corticosterone levels were higher than those at PND9, and corticosterone levels were higher in blood than in brain regions. These data illustrate the rapid and profound changes in stress physiology during neonatal development and suggest that neurosteroid production is a possible mechanism by which ELS has enduring effects on brain and behavior.

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James I Raeside Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

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Heather L Christie Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

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Current heightened recognition of the importance of sulfated steroids led to the examination of conjugates in media from incubations of estrogens in tissues from the reproductive tract of stallions. Previously, we had reported a ‘new’ unidentified metabolite of estrone (E1) and [3H]-E1, located between 17β-estradiol (E2) and E1 reference standards on chromatography (HPLC) and identified tentatively as a stable 5α,6α-estrone epoxide. Stallion tissues were minced and incubated for 2 h with [3H]-E1 (1 × 106 cpm). Solid-phase extraction of unconjugated and conjugated steroids from media was followed by liquid scintillation counting (LSC), where radioactivity was mostly in the conjugate fractions (>80%). HPLC of conjugated steroids used an isocratic solvent system of acetonitrile/water (8:92) at 700 µL/min with detection by LSC. A radioactive peak between reference standards of E1 and E2 sulfates was examined, after solvolysis, in a second solvent system. Sulfated steroids yielded largely E1, whereas acid treatment of the unconjugated E1 epoxide had earlier formed 6α-OH-E1 almost exclusively. With sulfatase enzyme, at neutral pH, radioactivity was also seen mostly as E1 with trace amounts of polar material. Reduction with KBH4, however, led also to desulfation; radioactivity had alignment with E2 but even more had low retention times as for 6α/6β-OH-E2. These findings point to a different hydrolysis for desulfation; even more, they reveal an additional oxygen atom at C6 and are supportive of biological formation of 5α,6α-epoxides of E1 and E2. As possible alternatives to catechol estrogens, implicated in cancer, the ‘new’ estrogen metabolites and their sulfated forms may have special interest.

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Carmen Corciulo Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Julia M Scheffler Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Piotr Humeniuk Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Alicia Del Carpio Pons Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Alexandra Stubelius Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Ula Von Mentzer Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Christina Drevinge Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Aidan Barrett Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Sofia Wüstenhagen Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Matti Poutanen Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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Claes Ohlsson Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Department of Drug Treatment, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Marie K Lagerquist Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Ulrika Islander Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Among patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA), postmenopausal women are over-represented. The purpose of this study was to determine whether deficiency of female sex steroids affects OA progression and to evaluate the protective effect of treatment with a physiological dose of 17β-estradiol (E2) on OA progression using a murine model. Ovariectomy (OVX) of female mice was used to mimic a postmenopausal state. OVX or sham-operated mice underwent surgery for destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) to induce OA. E2 was administered in a pulsed manner for 2 and 8 weeks. OVX of OA mice did not influence the cartilage phenotype or synovial thickness, while both cortical and trabecular subchondral bone mineral density (BMD) decreased after OVX compared with sham-operated mice at 8 weeks post-DMM surgery. Additionally, OVX mice displayed decreased motor activity, reduced threshold of pain sensitivity, and increased number of T cells in the inguinal lymph nodes compared to sham-operated mice 2 weeks after OA induction. Eight weeks of treatment with E2 prevented cartilage damage and thickening of the synovium in OVX OA mice. The motor activity was improved after E2 replacement at the 2 weeks time point, which was also associated with lower pain sensitivity in the OA paw. E2 treatment protected against OVX-induced loss of subchondral trabecular bone. The number of T cells in the inguinal lymph nodes was reduced by E2 treatment after 8 weeks. This study demonstrates that treatment with a physiological dose of E2 exerts a protective role by reducing OA symptoms.

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Ryan A Lafferty Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Laura M McShane Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Zara J Franklin Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Peter R Flatt Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Finbarr P M O’Harte Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Nigel Irwin Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Centre for Diabetes, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

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Discerning modification to the amino acid sequence of native glucagon can generate specific glucagon receptor (GCGR) antagonists, that include desHis1Pro4Glu9-glucagon and the acylated form desHis1Pro4Glu9(Lys12PAL)-glucagon. In the current study, we have evaluated the metabolic benefits of once-daily injection of these peptide-based GCGR antagonists for 18 days in insulin-resistant high-fat-fed (HFF) mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced insulin deficiency, namely HFF-STZ mice. Administration of desHis1Pro4Glu9-glucagon moderately (P < 0.05) decreased STZ-induced elevations of food intake. Body weight was not different between groups of HFF-STZ mice and both treatment interventions delayed (P < 0.05) the onset of hyperglycaemia. The treatments reduced (P < 0.05–P < 0.001) circulating and pancreatic glucagon, whilst desHis1Pro4Glu9(Lys12PAL)-glucagon also substantially increased (P < 0.001) pancreatic insulin stores. Oral glucose tolerance was appreciably improved (P < 0.05) by both antagonists, despite the lack of augmentation of glucose-stimulated insulin release. Interestingly, positive effects on i.p. glucose tolerance were less obvious suggesting important beneficial effects on gut function. Metabolic benefits were accompanied by decreased (P < 0.05–P < 0.01) locomotor activity and increases (P < 0.001) in energy expenditure and respiratory exchange ratio in both treatment groups. In addition, desHis1Pro4Glu9-glucagon increased (P < 0.01–P < 0.001) O2 consumption and CO2 production. Together, these data provide further evidence that peptidic GCGR antagonists are effective treatment options for obesity-driven forms of diabetes, even when accompanied by insulin deficiency.

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Jocemara Patrícia Silva de Souza Parrela Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ingridys Regina Borkenhagen Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Sarah Ramany Faria Salmeron Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Thalyne Aparecida Leite Lima Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ginislene Dias Souza Miranda Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Hercules de Oliveira Costermani Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Camila Luiza Rodrigues dos Santos Ricken Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ester Vieira Alves Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Rodrigo Mello Gomes Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology and Metabolism, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil

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Júlio Cezar de Oliveira Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Herein, we assessed milk hormones, the biochemical composition of milk, and its association with neonatal body weight gain and metabolic homeostasis in weaned rats whose mothers were undernourished in the last third of pregnancy. From the 14th day of pregnancy until delivery, undernourished mothers had their food restricted by 50% (FR50), whereas control mothers were fed ad libitum. The litter size was adjusted to eight pups, and rats were weaned at 22 days old. Milk and blood from mothers, as well as blood and tissues from pups, were collected for further analyses. At birth, FR50 pups were smaller than control pups, and they exhibited hyperphagia and rapid catch-up growth during the suckling period. On day 12, the milk from FR50 mothers had higher energy content, glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and acylated ghrelin but lower leptin and corticosterone levels. Interestingly, FR50 mothers were hypoglycemic and hyperleptinemic at the end of the nursing period. Weaned FR50 pups had an obese phenotype and exhibited insulin resistance, which was associated with hyperglycemia and hypertriglyceridemia; they also had high blood levels of total cholesterol, leptin, and acylated ghrelin. In addition, the protein expression of growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) in the hypothalamus was increased by almost 4-fold in FR50 pups. In summary, maternal calorie restriction during the last third of pregnancy disrupts energy and metabolic hormones in milk, induces pup hyperleptinemia and hyperghrelinemia, and upregulates their hypothalamic GHSR, thus suggesting that the hypothalamic neuroendocrine circuitry may be working to address the early onset of obesity.

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Kirsty A Walters School of Women’s and Children’s Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

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Alba Moreno-Asso Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, Victoria, Australia
Australian Institute of Musculoskeletal Science, Victoria University, St. Albans, Victoria, Australia

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Nigel K Stepto Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, Victoria, Australia
Australian Institute of Musculoskeletal Science, Victoria University, St. Albans, Victoria, Australia
Monash Centre for Health Research and Implementation, Monash University and Monash Health, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Medicine at Western Health, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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Michael W Pankhurst Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Valentina Rodriguez Paris School of Women’s and Children’s Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

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Raymond J Rodgers The Robinson Research Institute, School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine condition characterised by a range of reproductive, endocrine, metabolic and psychological abnormalities. Reports estimate that around 10% of women of reproductive age are affected by PCOS, representing a significant prevalence worldwide, which poses a high economic health burden. As the origin of PCOS remains largely unknown, there is neither a cure nor mechanism-based treatments leaving patient management suboptimal and focused solely on symptomatic treatment. However, if the underlying mechanisms underpinning the development of PCOS were uncovered then this would pave the way for the development of new interventions for PCOS. Recently, there have been significant advances in our understanding of the underlying pathways likely involved in PCOS pathogenesis. Key insights include the potential involvement of androgens, insulin, anti-Müllerian hormone and transforming growth factor beta in the development of PCOS. This review will summarise the significant scientific discoveries on these factors that have enhanced our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the development of PCOS and discuss the impact these insights may have in shaping the future development of effective strategies for women with PCOS.

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