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Stephen P Fitzgerald Departments of General Medicine and Endocrinology, The Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, Australia
The University of Adelaide, Discipline of Medicine, Adelaide Medical School, Adelaide, Australia

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Nigel G Bean School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

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Henrik Falhammar Department of Endocrinology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

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Rudolf Hoermann Klinikum Lüdenscheid, Paulmannshöherstr, Lüdenscheid, Germany

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Yael Korem Kohanim Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

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Hermann Pohlabeln Department Biometry and Data Management, Leibniz Institute for Prevention Research and Epidemiology – BIPS, Bremen, Germany

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Niels Grote Beverborg Department of Cardiology University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

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Sarah Tomassetti Hematology-Oncology Division, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
Health Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
The Lundquist Institute, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA

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The fundamental models underlying hormonal physiological regulation and homeostasis remain poorly understood. We aimed to derive quantitative evidence regarding these models from the study of population data of balance points of different parameters and their respective controlling hormones. We studied the slopes of correlations between concentrations of circulating free thyroxine and thyrotropin, calcium and parathyroid hormone, hemoglobin and erythropoietin, and glucose and insulin in such population data, as well as the slopes of the limbs of various feedback loops estimated empirically and by reverse engineering of the population data. We used computer simulations to model the factors that influence the slopes derived from the population data, and then matched these simulations with the empirically derived slopes. Our simulations showed that changes to the population distribution of feedback loop limbs may alter the slopes of correlations within population data in specific ways. Non-random (interdependent) associations of the limbs of feedback loops may also have this effect, as well as producing discrepancies between the slopes of feedback limb loops determined experimentally and the same slopes determined by derivation from population data. Our corresponding empirical findings were consistent with the presence of such interdependence in the free thyroxine/thyrotropin, hemoglobin/erythropoietin, and glucose/insulin systems. The glucose/insulin data provided evidence consistent with increasing interdependence with age in childhood. Our findings therefore provide strong evidence that the interdependence of the limbs of feedback loops is a general feature of endocrine homeostatic regulation. This interdependence potentially bestows evolutionary homeostatic and regulatory advantages.

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L Strauss Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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A Junnila Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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A Wärri Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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M Manti Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

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Y Jiang Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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E Löyttyniemi Department of Biostatistics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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E Stener-Victorin Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

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M K Lagerquist Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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K Kukoricza Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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T Heinosalo Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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S Blom Aiforia Technologies Oyj, Pursimiehenkatu, Helsinki, Finland

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M Poutanen Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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The mouse estrous cycle is divided into four stages: proestrus (P), estrus (E), metestrus (M), and diestrus (D). The estrous cycle affects reproductive hormone levels in a wide variety of tissues. Therefore, to obtain reliable results from female mice, it is important to know the estrous cycle stage during sampling. The stage can be analyzed from a vaginal smear under a microscope. However, it is time-consuming, and the results vary between evaluators. Here, we present an accurate and reproducible method for staging the mouse estrous cycle in digital whole-slide images (WSIs) of vaginal smears. We developed a model using a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) in a cloud-based platform, Aiforia Create. The CNN was trained by supervised pixel-level multiclass semantic segmentation of image features from 171 hematoxylin-stained samples. The model was validated by comparing the results obtained by CNN with those of four independent researchers. The validation data included three separate studies comprising altogether 148 slides. The total agreement attested by the Fleiss kappa value between the validators and the CNN was excellent (0.75), and when D, E, and P were analyzed separately, the kappa values were 0.89, 0.79, and 0.74, respectively. The M stage is short and not well defined by the researchers. Thus, identification of the M stage by the CNN was challenging due to the lack of proper ground truth, and the kappa value was 0.26. We conclude that our model is reliable and effective for classifying the estrous cycle stages in female mice.

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Emma Rose McGlone Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Stephen R Bloom Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Tricia M-M Tan Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Metabolic-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is closely associated with obesity. MASLD affects over 1 billion adults globally but there are few treatment options available. Glucagon is a key metabolic regulator, and its actions include the reduction of liver fat through direct and indirect means. Chronic glucagon signalling deficiency is associated with hyperaminoacidaemia, hyperglucagonaemia and increased circulating levels of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21). Reduction in glucagon activity decreases hepatic amino acid and triglyceride catabolism; metabolic effects include improved glucose tolerance, increased plasma cholesterol and increased liver fat. Conversely, glucagon infusion in healthy volunteers leads to increased hepatic glucose output, decreased levels of plasma amino acids and increased urea production, decreased plasma cholesterol and increased energy expenditure. Patients with MASLD share many hormonal and metabolic characteristics with models of glucagon signalling deficiency, suggesting that they could be resistant to glucagon. Although there are few studies of the effects of glucagon infusion in patients with obesity and/or MASLD, there is some evidence that the expected effect of glucagon on amino acid catabolism may be attenuated. Taken together, this evidence supports the notion that glucagon resistance exists in patients with MASLD and may contribute to the pathogenesis of MASLD. Further studies are warranted to investigate the direct effects of glucagon on metabolism in patients with MASLD.

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María Victoria Zanardi Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Cátedra de Fisiología Humana, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina
Faculty of Biology, Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

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María Paula Gastiazoro Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Cátedra de Fisiología Humana, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina

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María Florencia Rossetti Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Cuantitativa, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina

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Florencia Doná Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina

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Gisela Paola Lazzarino Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Cuantitativa, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina

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Oliver Zierau Faculty of Biology, Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

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Jorgelina Varayoud Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Cátedra de Fisiología Humana, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina

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Milena Durando Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Fe, Argentina
Cátedra de Fisiología Humana, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina

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Exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides (GBH) and consumption of cafeteria (CAF) diet, which are widespread in Western society, seem to be associated with endometrial hyperplasia (EH). Here, we aimed to evaluate the effects of a subchronic low dose of GBH added to the CAF diet on the rat uterus. Female Wistar rats were fed from postnatal day (PND)21 until PND240 with chow (control) or CAF diet. Since PND140, rats also received GBH (2 mg of glyphosate/kg/day) or water through food, yielding four experimental groups: control, CAF, GBH, and CAF+GBH. On PND240, CAF and CAF+GBH animals showed an increased adiposity index. With respect to the control group, no changes in the serum levels of 17β-estradiol and progesterone were found. However, progesterone levels were higher in the CAF+GBH group than in the CAF and GBH groups. In the uterus, both studied factors alone and in combination induced morphological and molecular changes associated with EH. Furthermore, the addition of GBH provoked an increased thickness of subepithelial stroma in rats fed with the CAF diet. As a consequence of GBH exposure, CAF+GBH rats exhibited an increased density of abnormal gland area, considered preneoplastic lesions, as well as a reduced PTEN and p27 expression, both tumor suppressor molecules that inhibit cell proliferation, with respect to control rats. These results indicate that the addition of GBH exacerbates the CAF effects on uterine lesions and that the PTEN/p27 signaling pathway seems to be involved. Further studies focusing on the interaction between unhealthy diets and environmental chemicals should be encouraged to better understand uterine pathologies.

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Irena Audzeyenka Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland

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Patrycja Rachubik Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland

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Dorota Rogacka Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland

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Moin A Saleem Bristol Renal, University of Bristol, Dorothy Hodgkin Building, Bristol, United Kingdom

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Agnieszka Piwkowska Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Nephrology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland
Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland

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Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the most frequent complications of diabetes. Early stages of DN are associated with hyperinsulinemia and progressive insulin resistance in insulin-sensitive cells, including podocytes. The diabetic environment induces pathological changes, especially in podocyte bioenergetics, which is tightly linked with mitochondrial dynamics. The regulatory role of insulin in mitochondrial morphology in podocytes has not been fully elucidated. Therefore, the main goal of the present study was to investigate effects of insulin on the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics and bioenergetics in human podocytes. Biochemical analyses were performed to assess oxidative phosphorylation efficiency by measuring the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and glycolysis by measuring the extracellular acidification rate (ECAR). mRNA and protein expression were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot. The intracellular mitochondrial network was visualized by MitoTracker staining. All calculations were conducted using CellProfiler software. Short-term insulin exposure exerted inhibitory effects on various parameters of oxidative respiration and adenosine triphosphate production, and glycolysis flux was elevated. After a longer time of treating cells with insulin, an increase in mitochondrial size was observed, accompanied by a reduction of expression of the mitochondrial fission markers DRP1 and FIS1 and an increase in mitophagy. Overall, we identified a previously unknown role for insulin in the regulation of oxidative respiration and glycolysis and elucidated mitochondrial dynamics in human podocytes. The present results emphasize the importance of the duration of insulin stimulation for its metabolic and molecular effects, which should be considered in clinical and experimental studies of DN.

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Samrin Kagdi Department of Nutritional Sciences, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Sulayman A Lyons Department of Nutritional Sciences, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Jacqueline L Beaudry Department of Nutritional Sciences, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Adipose tissue was once known as a reservoir for energy storage but is now considered a crucial organ for hormone and energy flux with important effects on health and disease. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is an incretin hormone secreted from the small intestinal K cells, responsible for augmenting insulin release, and has gained attention for its independent and amicable effects with glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), another incretin hormone secreted from the small intestinal L cells. The GIP receptor (GIPR) is found in whole adipose tissue, whereas the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) is not, and some studies suggest that GIPR action lowers body weight and plays a role in lipolysis, glucose/lipid uptake/disposal, adipose tissue blood flow, lipid oxidation, and free-fatty acid (FFA) re-esterification, which may or may not be influenced by other hormones such as insulin. This review summarizes the research on the effects of GIP in adipose tissue (distinct depots of white and brown) using cellular, rodent, and human models. In doing so, we explore the mechanisms of GIPR-based medications for treating metabolic disorders, such as type 2 diabetes and obesity, and how GIPR agonism and antagonism contribute to improvements in metabolic health outcomes, potentially through actions in adipose tissues.

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Affiong Ika Oqua Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Yusman Manchanda Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Emma Rose McGlone Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Ben Jones Section of Investigative Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Sarah Rouse Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, UK

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Alejandra Tomas Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK

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The glucagon receptor family are typical class B1 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with important roles in metabolism, including the control of pancreas, brain, and liver function. As proteins with seven transmembrane domains, GPCRs are intimately in contact with lipid bilayers and therefore can be putatively regulated by interactions with their lipidic components, including cholesterol, sphingolipids, and other lipid species. Additionally, these receptors, as well as the agonists they bind to, can undergo lipid modifications, which can influence their binding capacity and/or elicit modified or biased signalling profiles. While the effect of lipids, and in particular cholesterol, has been widely studied for other GPCR classes, information about their role in regulating the glucagon receptor family is only beginning to emerge. Here we summarise our current knowledge on the effects of cholesterol modulation of glucagon receptor family signalling and trafficking profiles, as well as existing evidence for specific lipid–receptor binding and indirect effects of lipids via lipid modification of cognate agonists. Finally, we discuss the different methodologies that can be employed to study lipid–receptor interactions and summarise the importance of this area of investigation to increase our understanding of the biology of this family of metabolically relevant receptors.

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Rebecca J Ainslie Institute for Regeneration and Repair, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Ioannis Simitsidellis Institute for Regeneration and Repair, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Phoebe M Kirkwood Institute for Regeneration and Repair, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Douglas A Gibson Institute for Regeneration and Repair, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Androgens can modulate immune cell function and may contribute to differences in the prevalence and severity of common inflammatory conditions. Although most immune cells are androgen targets, our understanding of how changes in androgen bioavailability can affect immune responses is incomplete. Androgens alter immune cell composition, phenotype, and activation by modulating the expression and secretion of inflammatory mediators or by altering the development and maturation of immune cell precursors. Androgens are generally associated with having suppressive effects on the immune system, but their impacts are cell and tissue context-dependent and can be highly nuanced even within immune cell subsets. In response to androgens, innate immune cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages increase the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and decrease nitric oxide production. Androgens promote the differentiation of T cell subsets and reduce the production of inflammatory mediators, such as IFNG, IL-4 and IL-5. Additionally, androgens/androgen receptor can promote the maturation of B cells. Thus, androgens can be considered as immunomodulatory agents, but further work is required to understand the precise molecular pathways that are regulated at the intersection between endocrine and inflammatory signals. This narrative review focusses on summarising our current understanding of how androgens can alter immune cell function and how this might affect inflammatory responses in health and disease.

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Glyn M Noguchi Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA

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Vincent C Castillo Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA

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Cynthia J Donaldson Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA

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Marcus R Flisher Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA

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Ariana T Momen Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA

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Alan Saghatelian Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA

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Mark O Huising Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
Department of Physiology & Membrane Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA

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Pancreatic alpha cell activity and glucagon secretion lower as glucose levels increase. While part of the decrease is regulated by glucose itself, paracrine signaling by their neighboring beta and delta cells also plays an important role. Somatostatin from delta cells is an important local inhibitor of alpha cells at high glucose. Additionally, urocortin 3 (UCN3) is a hormone that is co-released from beta cells with insulin and acts locally to potentiate somatostatin secretion from delta cells. UCN3 thus inhibits insulin secretion via a negative feedback loop with delta cells, but its role with respect to alpha cells and glucagon secretion is not understood. We hypothesize that the somatostatin-driven glucagon inhibition at high glucose is regulated in part by UCN3 from beta cells. Here, we use a combination of live functional Ca2+ and cAMP imaging as well as direct glucagon secretion measurement, all from alpha cells in intact mouse islets, to determine the contributions of UCN3 to alpha cell behavior. Exogenous UCN3 treatment decreased alpha cell Ca2+ and cAMP levels and inhibited glucagon release. Blocking endogenous UCN3 signaling increased alpha cell Ca2+ by 26.8 ± 7.6%, but this did not result in increased glucagon release at high glucose. Furthermore, constitutive deletion of Ucn3 did not increase Ca2+ activity or glucagon secretion relative to controls. UCN3 is thus capable of inhibiting mouse alpha cells, but, given the subtle effects of endogenous UCN3 signaling on alpha cells, we propose that UCN3-driven somatostatin may serve to regulate local paracrine glucagon levels in the islet instead of inhibiting gross systemic glucagon release.

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Caroline C Faria Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Leonardo Matta Pereira Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Luiz Gabriel Portilho Moreira Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Kathelinie Celestino Faustino Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Milena Simões Peixoto Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Ariclécio Cunha de Oliveira Instituto Superior de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Estadual do Ceará, Ceará, Brazil

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Andrea Claudia Freitas Ferreira Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
NUMPEX, Campus Duque de Caxias, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Denise Pires Carvalho Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Rodrigo Soares Fortunato Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Thyroid disorders affect more women than men, but the underlying mechanisms contributing to this disparity remain incompletely understood. Thyrotropin (TSH), the primary regulator of thyroid oxidative hormonogenesis, has been implicated as a risk factor for proliferative thyroid diseases and a predictor of malignancy. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the impact of sustained elevated TSH levels on thyroid redox homeostasis, inflammatory markers, and DNA damage response in both male and female rats. Rats were treated with methimazole for 7 or 21 days, and hormonal measurements were conducted. H2O2 levels were evaluated in thyroid membrane fractions, while enzymatic activities were assessed in total thyroid homogenates. Sex-specific differences emerged, with females displaying higher reactive oxygen species levels – increased transiently NOX and sustained DUOX activities. Lipid peroxidation marker 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) was elevated in females at both time points, contrasting with males just at 21 days. Sexual dimorphism was observed in DNA damage response, with females showing higher γH2AX levels at 21 days. Elevated IL-1β, TNF-α, CD11b mRNA, and phospho-NF-κB levels at 7 days indicated a distinct inflammatory profile in females. Notably, both sexes exhibited upregulated antioxidant enzymes. Our data suggest that females are more susceptible to oxidative damage and inflammation in our goiter model, which may be associated with higher ROS production and a less-efficient antioxidant defense system. These findings provide insights into the sex-specific mechanisms underlying thyroid dysfunction and highlight the importance of considering sex disparities in thyroid disorder research.

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