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Introduction The major estrogen in vertebrates is 17β-estradiol (E 2 ). The first step in the metabolism of E 2 is NADPH-dependant oxidative metabolism catalyzed by hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes ( Zhu & Conney 1998 ). Mammalian CYP enzymes
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representation of insulin resistance and its influence on bone metabolism is provided in Fig. 2 . Figure 1 Schematic representation showing the effects of insulin on bone formation at physiological level. A full colour version of this figure is available
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. 1995 , Teixeira et al. 2019 ). During lactation, changes in maternal metabolism occur to fulfill the nutrient and mineral requirements for milk production ( Kovacs 2016 , Canul & Fernandez 2019). Lactating rats present lower glucose and plasma
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The new edition of Werner's The Thyroid is so massive a monograph that anyone might be forgiven for supposing that all must now be light as regards the thyroid and its hormones. Such a conclusion would be much in error: many important areas remain most murky. Some of the problems involved in understanding the metabolism of thyroid hormones at the cellular level received a recent airing in the lecture of Professor Reed Larsen at the 1987 meeting of the British Endocrine Societies (Larsen, 1987). Although it is now generally accepted that the important thyroid hormone for the cells is tri-iodothyronine (T3), it is not clear precisely how the supply is matched to the cellular need, for T3 forms only a small proportion of the thyroid secretion, the predominant hormone secreted being thyroxine (T4). The cellular supply of T3 depends largely on conversion of T4 to T3 by an enzyme
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receptor (MR or type 1 corticosteroid receptor) is localised to specific anatomical sites, including the distal nephron, colon and sweat glands ( Edwards et al . 1988 , Seckl & Walker 2001 ). Pre-receptor metabolism of glucocorticoids determines tissue
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Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy & Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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Translational Medical Center for Stem Cell Therapy & Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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& Karin 2012 ). Disrupted lipid metabolism including fatty acid oxidation and de novo lipogenesis in liver results in the development of hepatic steatosis and contributes to the development of hepatic insulin resistance ( Marchesini et al . 2003
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supported the hypothesis that variations in glucocorticoid metabolism within target tissues play an important role in the pathophysiology of Metabolic Syndrome. In addition to 11β-HSD1, glucocorticoids are metabolised by several other enzymes ( Fig. 1 ). In
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although the mechanisms underlying these observations are unknown. Kisspeptin regulation of energy balance and metabolism Effect of metabolism on fertility Reproduction is a resource-costly activity and as such its success is dependent
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caused by the imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. Metabolic hormones, such as insulin and growth hormone (GH), play critical roles in the regulation of substrate and energy metabolism ( Huang et al. 2020 a ). Both insulin and GH play an
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Introduction Thyroid hormones (THs) are critical regulators of cellular differentiation, growth and metabolism. The thyroid secretes 100% of circulating thyroxine (T 4 ). However, it provides a low percentage of serum levels of the most
