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Patrícia Oliveira Prada Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Michella Soares Coelho Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Henrique Gottardello Zecchin Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Miriam Sterman Dolnikoff Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Alessandra Lia Gasparetti Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Luzia Naôko Shinohara Furukawa Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Mario José Abdalla Saad Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Joel Claudio Heimann Departamento de Clínica Médica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Departamento de Clínica Médica, Divisão de Nefrologia, Laboratório de Hipertensão Experimental da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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resistance are not yet completely understood. Under such conditions, insulin resistance may be tissue-specific to the liver and muscle, whereas adipose tissue remains sensitive to insulin, as seen in a previous study ( Hirata et al. 2003 ). At the

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Sujith Rajan Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Kripa Shankar Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Muheeb Beg Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Salil Varshney Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Abhishek Gupta Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Ankita Srivastava Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Durgesh Kumar Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Raj K Mishra SIPS Superspeciality Hospital, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Zakir Hussain Division of Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Jiaur R Gayen Division of Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Anil N Gaikwad Division of Pharmacology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

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2015). Obesity is defined as excess accumulation of body fat or adipose tissue and is considered to be the antecedent of metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance (IR), type 2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, etc. ( Ye

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Xuefeng Yang Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Shuang Mei Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Haihua Gu Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Huailan Guo Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Longying Zha Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Junwei Cai Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Xuefeng Li Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Zhenqi Liu Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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Wenhong Cao Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA
Department of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Department of Medicine, Department of Medicine (Endocrinology), Department of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Gillings School of Global Public Health, Nutrition Research Institute (NRI) at Kannapolis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27559, USA

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key components: insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and relative insulin insufficiency. Relative insulin insufficiency (overt T2DM) typically occurs over 10 years after insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia have been established ( Kendall et al

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M Schütt
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J Zhou
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M Meier
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H H Klein
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, however, also increasingly well established that PIs cause insulin resistance that is associated with the long-term development of a metabolic syndrome-like disease including impaired glucose tolerance/diabetes and cardiovascular complications ( Walli et

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Juthamard Surapongchai Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

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Mujalin Prasannarong Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand

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Tepmanas Bupha-Intr Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

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Vitoon Saengsirisuwan Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

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Introduction Insulin resistance of skeletal muscle represents a major defect in the maintenance of euglycemia and is often accompanied by a variety of metabolic and cardiovascular abnormalities, including glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia

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Sanhua Leng
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Wenshuo Zhang
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Yanbin Zheng
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Ziva Liberman The Section of Endocrinology, The University of Chicago, The Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, KCBD Room 8122, 900 East 57th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA

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Christopher J Rhodes
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Hagit Eldar-Finkelman The Section of Endocrinology, The University of Chicago, The Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, KCBD Room 8122, 900 East 57th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA

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Xiao Jian Sun
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Introduction Insulin resistance is a major pathophysiological problem in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, and is a key component of the metabolic syndrome ( DeFronzo et al . 1982 , Fourlanos et al . 2004 ). Insulin resistance is

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Jiali Liu Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Yue Li Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Xiaoyan Zhou Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Xi Zhang Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Hao Meng Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Sanyuan Liu Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Lei Zhang Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Juntao He Department of Health Office, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Qian He Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Yan Geng Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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Introduction In recent years, there has been an increasing appreciation for the significance of insulin resistance, which is a common feature of obesity and predisposes affected individuals to a variety of pathological conditions, including

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Fernando Escrivá Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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M Lucía Gavete Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Yasmín Fermín Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Coralia Pérez Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Nilda Gallardo Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Carmen Alvarez Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Antonio Andrés Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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Manuel Ros Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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José M Carrascosa Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Centro de Biología Molecular ‘Severo Ochoa’, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Area de Bioquímica, Facultad de Químicas, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain

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reports have shown that decreased insulin sensitivity occurs in non-obese elderly humans ( Fink et al. 1983 , 1986 ), some have concluded that insulin resistance in the elderly derives from changes in body composition due to fat accumulation

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P Brandimarti Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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J M Costa-Júnior Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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S M Ferreira Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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A O Protzek Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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G J Santos Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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E M Carneiro Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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A C Boschero Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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L F Rezende Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6109, Campinas, SP, CEP 13083-865, Brazil

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main elements for diagnosis of type 2 diabetes, the alterations in insulin resistance, secretion, and clearance vary according to disease development. At onset of type 2 diabetes, there is an increase in insulin resistance, coupled with increased

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Cathy A Guo Department of Nutrition and Food Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

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Shaodong Guo Department of Nutrition and Food Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

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Introduction Insulin resistance is the major underlying mechanism for metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunction in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) ( Qi 2016 ). T2D is a high-risk factor in promoting heart failure and its prevalence

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