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transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2), which has its binding site in the G2 enhancer element of proglucagon ( G lu ), a precursor of GLP1 ( Akiyama 2000 ). Insulin enhances GLP1 production via inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β
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precise mechanisms and participating molecules remain poorly understood. Krüppel-like factor (KLF) 9, a member of the Sp/KLF family of transcription factors ( Suske et al . 2005 ), is a 244-amino acid protein characterized by three C-terminal zinc finger
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-activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) (sc200) antibodies were obtained from Santa Cruz Technology. Anti-BAX (B3428) and anti-β-actin (A5316) antibodies were obtained from Sigma; anti-AKT1 (05-796) was obtained from Upstate Biotechnology (Waltham, MA, USA); and anti
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AP-HP Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Nutrition Department, Paris, France
AP-HP Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Diabetology-Metabolism Department, Paris, France
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AP-HP Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Nutrition Department, Paris, France
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in vivo and in vitro have shown that HNF-4α plays pleiotropic roles in liver functions and is a central transcription factor at the crossroads between epithelial morphogenesis and functions ( Battle et al. 2006 , Ribeiro et al. 2007 , Hwang
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Introduction
Nuclear receptors
The cell's long-term response to environmental stimuli is associated with changes in cellular proliferation, differentiation and metabolism mediated by the modification of the protein content of a cell via differential gene expression. Transcription factors that regulate the activity of specific genes receive such stimuli in different ways. Peptide hormones, growth factors and neurotransmitters bind and activate cell surface receptors, initiating a cascade of intracellular signals by a complex system of secondary messengers that leads to the activation of transcription factors. Other transcription factors that are responsive to steroid and thyroid hormones, retinoids and other signalling molecules belong to the distinct class of nuclear receptors present in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Direct and high affinity binding of a specific signalling molecule or ligand activates the nuclear receptors to exert control on the rate of transcription of target genes via interaction with specific DNA sequences
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( Fig. 1 ). Figure 1 Aldosterone/MR signaling. Aldosterone (aldo) has several mechanisms of action. (1) It can bind to cytosolic MR and initiate translocation of MR into the nucleus, where the MR homodimerizes and acts as a transcription factor
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protein 7 (PAX7) denotes a myoblast that has not terminally differentiated and has the capacity to enter the cell cycle and proliferate ( Relaix et al . 2005 ). MRFs are a set of transcription factors, including MYF5 , MYOD , MYF6 and MYOG , that are
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s at 58 °C, 45 s at 72 °C; 5 min at 72 °C). PCR cycle number was 35 for all primer pairs with the exception of Isl1 (29 cycles) and forkhead box transcription factor a2 (Foxa2; 40 cycles). PCR products were separated and visualised on 1% agarose gels
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and proliferation of the individual endocrine cell populations ( Rizzoti 2015 ). The earliest exclusive pituitary marker is PROP1 , a paired homeodomain transcription factor, which is expressed at embryonic day 10 (E10) in the mouse. SOX2- expressing
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transcription factors in macrophages ( Tsatsanis et al . 2006 ). These data contrast with the reduced IRS1 and AKT phosphorylation observed in the transgenic mice ( Jamieson et al . 2011 ), which may have been the result of the reduced circulating insulin