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Yirui He The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China
Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China

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Cheng Zhang The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China

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Yong Luo The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China

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Jinhua Chen Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China

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Mengliu Yang The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China

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Ling Li Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine (Ministry of Education) and Department of Clinical Biochemistry, College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China

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Harvest F Gu Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden

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Gangyi Yang The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China
Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China

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Xianxiang Zhang The Center of Clinical Research of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases in Chongqing and Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Three Gorges Central Hospital, Chongqing, China

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CNS, particularly the hypothalamus, plays a key role in modulating insulin sensitivity and energy homeostasis in vivo ( Knight et al. 2011 , Purkayastha et al. 2011 , Yang et al. 2012 ). Furthermore, changes in the levels of some nutrients

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Maria Carolina S Mendes Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), MA: 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Gustavo D Pimentel Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), MA: 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Felipe O Costa Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), MA: 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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José B C Carvalheira Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), MA: 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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, several factors such as increased levels of hormones, cytokines and factors secreted by the tumor as well as deregulation of control by the hypothalamus of energy expenditure and hunger/satiety promote cancer cachexia ( Fig. 1 ). Figure 1 Tumor

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Brenton T Laing Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Khoa Do Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Tomoko Matsubara Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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David W Wert East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Michael J Avery Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Erin M Langdon Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Donghai Zheng Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Human Performance Laboratory, Collage of Human Performance and Health, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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Hu Huang Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Human Performance Laboratory, Collage of Human Performance and Health, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Department of Physiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

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and energy expenditure, which are tightly controlled by the CNS ( Morton et al. 2006 ). The CNS controls the important aspects of metabolism, particularly in the hypothalamus, where neurons directly respond to physiological changes such as hunger and

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Tony M Plant Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Magee-Womens Research Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 204 Craft Avenue, Room B311, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA

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-stimulating properties of pituitary gonadotropin, the relative insignificance of gonadal nerves to gonadal function and the concept of neurosecretion. The problem for Harris and his fellow neuroendocrinologists was how did the hypothalamus regulate the secretion of the

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Cassandra C Yap School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Michaela D Wharfe School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Peter J Mark School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Brendan J Waddell School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Jeremy T Smith School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Kisspeptin also appears to be under the circadian control, as evidenced by studies showing that increases in kisspeptin expression in the AVPV of the hypothalamus are synchronous with the LH surge during proestrus in

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S Babic Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia

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M Pokusa Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia

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V Danevova Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia
Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia

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S T Ding Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia

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D Jezova Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Biotechnology Center, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06 Bratislava, Slovakia

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conditions, gene expression of oxytocin in the hypothalamus as well as the concentration of oxytocin in the peripheral circulation and in the brain is increased. Vasopressin is released particularly in response to stress stimuli with an osmotic component

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Campbell J L Harter School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Georgia S Kavanagh School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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Jeremy T Smith School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

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testes, ovaries, pancreas and small intestine ( Kotani et al. 2001 , Muir et al. 2001 , Ohtaki et al. 2001 ). Significantly, kisspeptin was discovered and mapped in the brain, expressed in the rodent hypothalamus, specifically within neurons

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Fan Yang College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, P. R. China

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Shuang Zhao College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, P. R. China

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Pingqing Wang College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, P. R. China

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Wei Xiang School of Advanced Agriculture and Bioengineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing, P. R. China

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addition to their reproductive effects. In this paper, the central neuropeptides related to energy and reproduction in the hypothalamus and their possible pathways with GnRH neurons are described, and the increasingly prominent metabolic effects of

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G Almeida-Pereira Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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T Vilhena-Franco Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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R Coletti Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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S Q Cognuck Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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H V P Silva Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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L L K Elias Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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J Antunes-Rodrigues Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

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lamina terminalis contained the OVLT, the MnPO and the SFO and the samples of the hypothalamus contained the bilateral PVN and the SON from each animal. The brain tissues were homogenized in extraction buffer (pH = 7.4) containing (in mM) 20 Tris

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Eva Baquedano Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

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Julie A Chowen Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

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Jesús Argente Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

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Laura M Frago Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Pediatrics, Department of Endocrinology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de fisiopatología de la obesidad y nutrición (CIBERobn), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

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addition, as rats treated with GH or GHRP-6 showed increased levels of phosphorylated Akt in the hypothalamus, hippocampus and cerebellum, but not of ERKs1/2 ( Frago et al . 2002 ), and Akt is a central regulator of survival, growth and proliferation

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