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genetically modified mice, the wider use of best practice stereological methods that allow the rigorous mapping of cell populations, unique agents to modulate hormones, and the genomic and proteomic revolution. Most data come from rodent models, although data
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Introduction Hormonal imprinting refers to a biological process in which the target tissue becomes responsive to the hormone. During the initial exposure, the hormone irreversibly reprograms the development of the affected tissue so as to
Department of Physiology, Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Physiology Building, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
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Introduction The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T 4 ) and triiodothyronine (T 3 ), are detectable in the fetal circulation from early in gestation and have important developmental, metabolic, and maturational effects in the fetus in all species
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1. INTRODUCTION
In insects, hormones are as important in co-ordinating development and physiology as in vertebrates. But in general, the insect endocrine system is simpler, and produces fewer hormones, than that in the vertebrates. It is possible, therefore, that the study of insect endocrinology may the more easily yield information about the fundamental mechanisms of hormone action. In an article of this length, it is impossible to discuss comprehensively all the present information about endocrine mechanisms in insects. Instead, this review will be concerned mainly with two aspects of insect endocrinology which may have greater appeal to the majority of the readers of this Journal: the control of the activity of the various parts of the insect endocrine system, and the ways in which the hormones act, and interact, during growth and development.
2. COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The insect endocrine system has four major components: groups of
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that the adult testis of experimental animals was metabolically unresponsive to thyroid hormones ( Barker & Klitgaard 1952 ), and to the low number of thyroid hormone-binding sites found in the adult organ ( Oppenheimer et al . 1974 ). These early
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a neurological or a skin disorder ( Gull 1874 , Sawin 2000 ). The dramatic increase in our understanding of thyroid hormone action as well as of the clinical implications of thyroid dysfunction that has occurred during the last two centuries, will
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Introduction The interplay between the endocrine and immune system is well established ( Besedovsky & del Rey 1996 , Klein 2006 , Schaefer & Klein 2011 ). Thyroid hormone (TH) metabolism and TH status have been linked to various aspects of
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’ wrote Starling. (We must remember that the literature still existed without using the word ‘hormone’.) It is also worth pointing out that secretin, a significant internal secretion, came from the wall of the intestine and not from a recognized internally
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*Department of Zoology, University of Nottingham, and †Department of Physiology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX
(Received 8 August 1975)
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 299
Gastrin and cholecystokinin 300
Chemistry of gastrin 300
Chemistry of cholecystokinin 302
Phylogenetic relationships between CCK and gastrin 302
Caerulein 303
Structure-activity relationships 303
Physiological actions 304
Metabolism 305
Regulation of secretion 306
Page
Secretin-glucagon family 306
Chemistry 306
Phylogenetic relationships 307
Biological actions 308
Structure-activity relationships 309
Regulation of secretion 310
Functional interactions 310
The sources of the hormones 313
Characterization of cell types 314
The APUD concept 316
The lower vertebrates and the protochordates 316
References 318
INTRODUCTION
The discovery by Bayliss & Starling (1902) of the hormonal regulation of pancreatic secretion has rightly been regarded as a major landmark in the development of endocrinology, yet for many years thereafter the study of gastrointestinal hormones was unduly neglected, except in
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Introduction: thyroid hormone and the euthyroid sick syndrome Thyroid hormone production, function, and interaction with other endocrine systems are well understood ( Flood et al . 2013 , Duarte-Guterman et al . 2014 ). Control of the thyroid
