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metabolic syndrome and deaths from ischemic heart disease in later life ( Curhan et al . 1996 a , Barker 1999 ). To explain these links, the concept of developmental ‘programming’ has been advanced, whereby a factor acting during a critical developmental
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–thyroid axis reactivity to hyper- and hypothyroidism in the perinatal period: ontogeny of regulation of regulation and long-term programming of responses . Journal of Developmental Physiology 18 105 – 109 . Radetti G Gottardi E Bona G Corrias A
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. Developmental origins in model organisms Developmental origins Programming is a phenomenon co-opted by the developmental origins hypothesis to explain a process whereby an insult during a critical period of development evokes potentially irreversible long
Basic Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, China
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Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan, China
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. Intrauterine overexposure to glucocorticoid can alter fetal developmental programming to adapt to the environment ( Harris & Seckl 2011 ). The changes in intrauterine programming caused by high glucocorticoid level during pregnancy are likely associated with
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that adult disease can originate in utero as a result of developmental programming of key tissues and organ systems during suboptimal intrauterine conditions associated with poor fetal growth ( Gluckman et al . 2008 ). Experimentally, prenatal
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neurones; indeed, developmental programming of leptin signalling is considered to be of importance in the development of the associated metabolic phenotype ( Cottrell & Ozanne 2007 ). In summary, PNS exposure resulted in effects on glucose–insulin and lipid
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metabolic disorders. In this regard, even after birth, plasticity in hypothalamic neuroendocrine pathways still occurs ( Bouret & Simerly 2006 ), and it is a critical moment for the developmental programming of orexigenic/anorexigenic neuronal signaling and
Biochemistry and Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Women and Children's Hospital of Buffalo, Departments of
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for immediate survival. However, over the long-term, these adaptations can predispose individuals to the development of the obese phenotype ( Plagemann 2005 ). In the context of the phenomenon of developmental programming, obesity during pregnancy is
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of these programmed overweight animals. Taken together, the present data reinforce the concept of the ‘developmental origins of health and disease,’ mainly concerning the programming of the thyroid function. Declaration of interest The authors declare
Freemason’s Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Monash IVF Group, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Freemason’s Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Monash IVF Group, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Monash IVF Group, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Freemason’s Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Monash IVF Group, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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substantial post-fertilisation reprogramming that occurs during embryo development. For example, paternal obesity alters the molecular composition of sperm, alters the developmental trajectory of resultant embryos and increases the incidence of obesity and