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Michael Muchow
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Ioannis Bossis
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Tom E Porter
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Introduction Thyroid hormones are involved in the regulation of growth, metabolism, heat production, gonadal development, molting, migration, and hatching in birds ( McNabb 2000 ). Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) plays an important

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G M Ledda-Columbano Department of Toxicology, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124 Cagliari, Italy

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A Perra Department of Toxicology, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124 Cagliari, Italy

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M Pibiri Department of Toxicology, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124 Cagliari, Italy

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F Molotzu Department of Toxicology, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124 Cagliari, Italy

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A Columbano Department of Toxicology, Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, University of Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124 Cagliari, Italy

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Introduction The thyroid hormones influence a variety of physiological processes, including cell growth and metabolism in mammals, metamorphosis in amphibians and development of the vertebrate nervous system ( Samuels et al. 1988

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S R Davis Department of Medicine (CECS), Monash University, Victoria, Australia
The Jean Hailes Foundation, 173 Carinish Road, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Department of Biochemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

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I Dinatale Department of Medicine (CECS), Monash University, Victoria, Australia
The Jean Hailes Foundation, 173 Carinish Road, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Department of Biochemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

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L Rivera-Woll Department of Medicine (CECS), Monash University, Victoria, Australia
The Jean Hailes Foundation, 173 Carinish Road, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Department of Biochemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

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S Davison Department of Medicine (CECS), Monash University, Victoria, Australia
The Jean Hailes Foundation, 173 Carinish Road, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
Department of Biochemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

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altered most dramatically following several critical observations made during the 19th and early 20th centuries, which led to our contemporary understanding of the menopause. Through these landmark studies emerged the discovery of the female sex hormones

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T. J. Allain
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A. M. McGregor
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Introduction

There is immense current interest in the effects of thyroid hormones on bone. This is largely due to concern that patients on thyroxine replacement therapy are at increased risk of developing osteoporosis; this concern follows a number of reports describing reduced bone mineral density in this group of patients. The issue is, however, uncertain and the purpose of this review is (i) to summarize what is known about the effects of thyroid hormones on bone at both an experimental and clinical level and (ii) to try to reach a greater understanding of the problem and its implications for patient management.

Bone biology

Bone remodelling requires the tightly coupled actions of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. A normal bone remodelling cycle takes approximately 200 days. Each cycle begins with activation of cells which become osteoclasts and start resorbing bone. This phase lasts for about 50 days and is terminated

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A. L. Ogilvy-Stuart
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S. M. Shalet
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In a child, puberty encompasses a series of events which include the completion of growth and the maturing of the reproductive system. One of the common hormonal links between these two processes is growth hormone (GH) and, although it has been known for some time that the reproductive axis influences GH secretion and growth, increasing interest is developing in the alternative possibility of GH modifying reproductive processes.

In the normal child, there is an increase in GH secretion from mid-childhood with a shift in periodicity and an increase in pulse amplitude (Hindmarsh, Mathews & Brook, 1988). The two- to threefold rise in GH secretion during puberty is a product of the increase in pulse amplitude over the prepubertal value (Martha, Rogol, Veldhuis et al. 1989; Delemarre-van de Waal, Wennink & Odink, 1991). GH pulse amplitude is increased during early puberty in girls and at a later stage in boys, corresponding

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Rita Sharma Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Quyen Luong Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Vishva M Sharma Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Mitchell Harberson Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Brian Harper Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Andrew Colborn Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Darlene E Berryman Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Niels Jessen Research Laboratory for Biochemical Pathology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

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Jens Otto Lunde Jørgensen Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Medical Research Laboratory, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

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John J Kopchick Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Vishwajeet Puri Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Kevin Y Lee Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
The Diabetes Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

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Introduction Although growth hormone (GH) has been primarily studied for its effects on linear growth, pronounced stimulation of lipolysis was among the first metabolic effects reported in human subjects following the introduction of pituitary

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J Fahrenkrug Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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B Georg Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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J Hannibal Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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H L Jørgensen Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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the cytoplasm, CRY and PER proteins translocate into the nucleus and form inhibitory complexes feeding negatively back on their own transcription. A daily rhythmicity of circulating thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) peaking at daytime in rats is well

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G. G. MURTHY
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R. R. MODESTO
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SUMMARY

The effects of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LH-RH) and thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) on rabbit adipose tissue were studied. LH-RH increased [14C]glucose oxidation and incorporation into fatty acids and had lipolytic activity, at the same time decreasing [14C]glucose incorporation in glyceride—glycerol fractions. TRH had no significant effect on glucose oxidation or lipolysis but decreased [14C]fatty acid synthesis and [14C]glucose incorporation into glyceride—glycerol fractions.

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Luba Sominsky School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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Christine L Jasoni School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Hannah R Twigg School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Sarah J Spencer School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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neurons of the arcuate nucleus (ARC) respond to circulating satiety hormones, including ghrelin, leptin and insulin to drive (NPY/AgRP; ghrelin) and suppress (POMC/CART; leptin, insulin) feeding ( Andermann & Lowell 2017 ). The corticotropin

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F E Utama Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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M J LeBaron Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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L M Neilson Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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A S Sultan Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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A F Parlow Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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K-U Wagner Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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H Rui Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, NRB E504, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, USA
National Hormone and Peptide Program, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrence, California 90509, USA
Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA

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Introduction Growth and differentiation of breast cancer is regulated by hormones, notably estrogen, progesterone and prolactin. In rodents, prolactin is a well-documented tumor promoter of the mammary gland, as revealed by a variety

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