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Rui Song Lawrence D. Longo, MD Center for Perinatal Biology, Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California, USA

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Xiang-Qun Hu Lawrence D. Longo, MD Center for Perinatal Biology, Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California, USA

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Lubo Zhang Lawrence D. Longo, MD Center for Perinatal Biology, Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California, USA

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). Increasing evidence indicates that glucocorticoids play an essential role in developmental ‘programming’ of health and disease ( Bolt et al. 2001 ). Glucocorticoids are required for the development of lung, brain, gastrointestinal system, renal system and

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Stephen G Matthews Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Departments of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Lunenfeld Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Patrick O McGowan Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Environmental Epigenetics and Development, University of Toronto, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada
Department of Cell and Systems Biology, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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fundamental link between adverse early environments and developmental programming of later disease. The underlying biological mechanisms that connect the perinatal environment with modified long-term health outcomes and represent an intensive area of research

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G Boaventura
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G Casimiro-Lopes
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C C Pazos-Moura Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, 5° Andar, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida 28 de Setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil

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E Oliveira
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P C Lisboa
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E G Moura
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. 2011 ). Studies showed that rats participating in training programs of short-duration (10–20 min) and low intensity had higher life expectancies ( Retzlaff et al . 1966 , Edington et al . 1972 ). According to the WHO (2002) , ‘exclusive

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Patricia C Lisboa Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Roberto Alcantara Gomes Biology Institute, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Avenida 28 de setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20551‐031, Brazil

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Ellen P S Conceição Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Roberto Alcantara Gomes Biology Institute, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Avenida 28 de setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20551‐031, Brazil

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Elaine de Oliveira Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Roberto Alcantara Gomes Biology Institute, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Avenida 28 de setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20551‐031, Brazil

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Egberto G Moura Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Roberto Alcantara Gomes Biology Institute, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Avenida 28 de setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20551‐031, Brazil

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the nutritional, hormonal and environmental factors observed in the early stages of development have long-term effects on hormonal and metabolic homeostasis. This association can be characterized as a metabolic programming phenomenon, which is defined

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Luba Sominsky School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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Christine L Jasoni School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Hannah R Twigg School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Sarah J Spencer School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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poised to be further elaborated and synaptically sculpted by important environmental factors encountered by the freely living individual after birth. Although we will not cover details of development nor prenatal developmental programming in this review

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Daiana Fornes Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Reproduction and Metabolism, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Florencia Heinecke Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Programming of Metabolic Anomalies, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Cintia Romina Gatti Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Reproduction and Metabolism, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Sabrina Lorena Roberti Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Reproduction and Metabolism, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Verónica White Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Programming of Metabolic Anomalies, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Alicia Jawerbaum Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Reproduction and Metabolism, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Evangelina Capobianco Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratory of Reproduction and Metabolism, CEFYBO, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Introduction The growing prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes has been related not only to sedentary lifestyle, the ingestion of hypercaloric diets and the genetic background but also to the fetal programming of glucose intolerance

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A P Santos-Silva Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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E Oliveira Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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C R Pinheiro Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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A C Santana Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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C C Nascimento-Saba Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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Y Abreu-Villaça Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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E G Moura Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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P C Lisboa Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Laboratory of Morphofunctional Analysis, Laboratory of Neurophysiology

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metabolic programming ( de Moura et al . 2008 , Lisboa et al . 2012 ). Recently, some studies have shown that tobacco exposure in utero is associated with changes in gene methylation profile ( Suter et al . 2010 , 2011 ), and the same event was

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Jocemara Patrícia Silva de Souza Parrela Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ingridys Regina Borkenhagen Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Sarah Ramany Faria Salmeron Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Thalyne Aparecida Leite Lima Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ginislene Dias Souza Miranda Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Hercules de Oliveira Costermani Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Camila Luiza Rodrigues dos Santos Ricken Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Ester Vieira Alves Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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Rodrigo Mello Gomes Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology and Metabolism, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil

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Júlio Cezar de Oliveira Research Group on Perinatal Programming of Metabolic Diseases: DOHaD Paradigm, Laboratory of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Education and Research Center (NUPADS), Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, University Campus of Sinop, Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil

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et al. 1997 ) famine studies has shown that maternal undernutrition programs long-term metabolic dysfunction in the offspring and that some subtle characteristics of this metabolic impairment depend on the period when the maternal undernutrition

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Muraly Puttabyatappa Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

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Robert M Sargis Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Vasantha Padmanabhan Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

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often remain dormant, requiring an activational step to unmask the programmed phenotypic and behavioral changes. An example of such activational processes is evident in reproductive behavior. While the neurocircuitry required for reproductive behaviors

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P Nguyen Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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S Khurana Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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H Peltsch Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Grandbois Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Eibl Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Crispo Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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D Ansell Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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T C Tai Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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programming. This is mediated in part by adaptation of the fetus to adverse conditions that are encountered during development in utero . Examples of such stressors include maternal nutrient restriction, hypoxia, physical trauma, as well as exposure to

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