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Robin Kristófi Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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Jan W Eriksson Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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Introduction Metformin is a biguanide drug that is widely prescribed as an oral antihyperglycaemic agent internationally and is recommended as the initial drug of choice for type 2 diabetes (T2D) according to recent joint European

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Christina Antza Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Georgios Kostopoulos Department of Endocrinology, 424 General Military Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece

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Samiul Mostafa Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Krishnarajah Nirantharakumar Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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Abd Tahrani Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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) ( https://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.REGION2480A?lang=en Accessed (September) (2021)). Considering the health and economic consequences associated with obesity (type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, mortality), there

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Nicole G Barra Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Fernando F Anhê Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Joseph F Cavallari Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Anita M Singh Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Darryl Y Chan Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Jonathan D Schertzer Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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extraction from food ( Bäckhed et al. 2007 ). The gut microbiota can also influence blood glucose. Lower bacterial diversity correlates with insulin resistance and higher adiposity (reviewed in Zhu & Goodarzi 2020 ). Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated

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Sarah J Richardson Islet Biology Group, Exeter Centre for Excellence in Diabetes (EXCEED), Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (IBCS), University of Exeter, RILD Level 4, Exeter, UK

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Alberto Pugliese Division of Diabetes Endocrinology and Metabolism, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, Diabetes Research Institute, Leonard Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA

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Introduction Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic disease characterized by severe loss of insulin secretion, requiring insulin replacement therapy for the individual’s lifetime. The disease is often diagnosed in children and adolescents, but

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Marion Régnier UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Matthias Van Hul UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Claude Knauf Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, INSERM U1220, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive (IRSD), CHU Purpan, Place du Docteur Baylac, Toulouse Cedex 3, France
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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Patrice D Cani UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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Introduction Obesity is linked with many cardiometabolic risk factors, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Although lowering body weight is effective for alleviating several of these

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Wenjuan Liu Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Harry Kevin Lau Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Dong Ok Son Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Tianru Jin Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institutes, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Banting and Best Diabetes Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Yehong Yang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Zhaoyun Zhang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Yiming Li Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Gerald J Prud’homme Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science of St. Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Qinghua Wang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Introduction The decrease in beta cells number could be due to limited proliferation and increased apoptosis, or both, which leads to chronic hyperglycemia as seen in type 1 diabetes (T1D), and at the end stage of type 2 diabetes (T2D

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Andre Sarmento-Cabral Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Mercedes del Rio-Moreno Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Mari C Vazquez-Borrego Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Mariyah Mahmood Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Elena Gutierrez-Casado Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Natalie Pelke Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Grace Guzman Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Papasani V Subbaiah Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Jose Cordoba-Chacon Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Shoshana Yakar Department of Molecular Pathobiology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York, USA

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Rhonda D Kineman Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago and Research and Development Division, Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH) for providing the Ghr fl/fl mouse model, and Dr Stuart J Frank (Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Alabama at Birmingham) for providing the mouse GHR

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Lei Du State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Yang Wang State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Cong-Rong Li State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Liang-Jian Chen State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Jin-Yang Cai State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Zheng-Rong Xia Analysis and Test Center, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Wen-Tao Zeng Animal Core Facility, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Zi-Bin Wang Analysis and Test Center, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Xi-Chen Chen Analysis and Test Center, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Fan Hu State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Dong Zhang State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Animal Core Facility, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Xiao-Wei Xing The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Zhi-Xia Yang State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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used for treating obesity and metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia in rodents ( Villarroya et al. 2013 , 2017 , Wang et al. 2015 ). As stated previously, PCOS is frequently accompanied by abnormal metabolism ( Balen et al

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Yanli Miao Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Haojie Qin Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Yi Zhong Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Kai Huang Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Caijun Rao Department of Geriatrics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Introduction Obesity and obesity-related disorders such as type 2 diabetes are steadily increasing worldwide with the improvement of people’s living standards and unhealthy lifestyle ( Mohammed et al. 2018 ). Obesity is a pathophysiological

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Prashant Regmi Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Rajesh Chaudhary Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Amanda J Page Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Amy T Hutchison Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Andrew D Vincent Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Bo Liu Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Leonie Heilbronn Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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P R and R C were supported by Adelaide scholarship international from The University of Adelaide. References Allison DB Paultre F Maggio C Mezzitis N Pi-Sunyer FX 1995 The use of areas under curves in diabetes research

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