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UofL Superfund Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
The Center for Integrative Environmental Health Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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than males ( Yamanobe et al. 2015 , Park et al. 2021 ) and (ii) menopausal status in females given that both progesterone and estrogen can modulate cadmium-mediated toxicity via metallothionein expression and metal-complex formation ( Sogawa et
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exacerbated by pregnancy hormones estrogen and progesterone ( Offenbacher et al. 2002 , Tettamanti et al. 2017 ), whilst gingival irritation and bleeding can introduce bacteria transiently into the blood stream. It is this haematogenous spread of oral