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Christina Antza Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Georgios Kostopoulos Department of Endocrinology, 424 General Military Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece

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Samiul Mostafa Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Krishnarajah Nirantharakumar Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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Abd Tahrani Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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2DM ( Gruden et al. 2016 ). Experimental sleep restriction was also associated with reduction in glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in women ( St-Onge et al. 2012 ). These changes in leptin, ghrelin and GLP-1 can contribute to the increase appetite

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Wenjuan Liu Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Harry Kevin Lau Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Dong Ok Son Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Tianru Jin Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institutes, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Banting and Best Diabetes Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Yehong Yang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Zhaoyun Zhang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Yiming Li Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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Gerald J Prud’homme Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science of St. Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Qinghua Wang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

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the β-cell mass and provide improved treatments for T1D and T2D subjects. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an incretin hormone released from gastrointestinal L cells in response to food ingestion, and has been currently used for the treatment of T2

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Marion Régnier UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Matthias Van Hul UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Claude Knauf Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, INSERM U1220, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive (IRSD), CHU Purpan, Place du Docteur Baylac, Toulouse Cedex 3, France
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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Patrice D Cani UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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hormones ( Cani et al. 2004 ). Indeed, both oligofructose and inulin have the capacity to reduce dietary intake in rodents by a mechanism that involves anorexigenic and orexigenic gut hormones, that is, an increase in glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and

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Sarah J Richardson Islet Biology Group, Exeter Centre for Excellence in Diabetes (EXCEED), Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (IBCS), University of Exeter, RILD Level 4, Exeter, UK

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Alberto Pugliese Division of Diabetes Endocrinology and Metabolism, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, Diabetes Research Institute, Leonard Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA

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. Figure 2 Representative histologically stained islets from type 1 diabetes pancreas. (A) An insulin-containing islet (ICI) with no evidence of immune cell infiltration (Insulin – brown; glucagon – pink, nPOD donor 6211). (B) An ICI with evidence of a

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Robin Kristófi Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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Jan W Eriksson Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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-phosphate dehydrogenase leading to an increase of cytosolic NAD hydrogen (NADH) levels and altered redox state in hepatocytes. This may also contribute to increased glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion and decreased gluconeogenesis in intestinal cells ( He 2020

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Nicole G Barra Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Fernando F Anhê Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Joseph F Cavallari Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Anita M Singh Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Darryl Y Chan Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Jonathan D Schertzer Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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gut microbes by increasing SCFA-producing bacteria and mucin-degrading Akkermansia muciniphila while increasing intestinal glucose absorption and glucagon-like peptide-1 production ( McCreight et al. 2016 , Vallianou et al. 2019 ). Although

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