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Scott Haston Developmental Biology and Cancer Research Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK

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Saba Manshaei Developmental Biology and Cancer Research Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK

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Juan Pedro Martinez-Barbera Developmental Biology and Cancer Research Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK

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ectoderm. The AL contains five distinct hormone-producing cell types: somatotrophs, thyrotrophs, lactotrophs, corticotrophs and gonadotrophs, which secrete growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropin (ACTH

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Shiao Y Chan School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Laura A Hancox School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Azucena Martín-Santos School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Laurence S Loubière School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Merlin N M Walter School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Ana-Maria González School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Phillip M Cox School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Ann Logan School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Christopher J McCabe School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Jayne A Franklyn School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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Mark D Kilby School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Department of Pathology, Fetal Medicine Centre, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

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al . 1998 ) and decreased expression of cerebral thyroid hormone receptor (TR) expression ( Kilby et al . 2000 ) in growth-restricted human fetuses are postulated to contribute to this neurodevelopmental morbidity. Examination of growth

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Jeffrey Friedman Rockefeller University, Box 305, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA

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was under feedback control and that obesity would be associated with increased levels of ob RNA. However, Coleman's experiments did not predict where the hormone that was missing in ob mice was expressed, though prior experiments from Hervey

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Rui Gao Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, UK

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Samuel Acreman Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, UK
Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Metabolic Research Unit, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden

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Jinfang Ma Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, UK

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Fernando Abdulkader Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Anna Wendt Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Islet Cell Exocytosis, Lund University Diabetes Centre, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden

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Quan Zhang Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, UK
CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB - Centre for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

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Introduction In the body, blood glucose levels are kept within a narrow range by concerted action of glucagon and insulin, the glucose-regulating hormones secreted by α- and β-cells, respectively ( Göke 2008 ). Whereas the islet α-cells were

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Ryoko Yamamoto Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Tomoko Minamizaki Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Yuji Yoshiko Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Hirotaka Yoshioka Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Kazuo Tanne Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Jane E Aubin Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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Norihiko Maeda Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Oral Growth and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan

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various kinases/phosphatases; and as a regulator of intracellular signaling. The 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 (1,25(OH) 2 D 3 )–parathyroid hormone (PTH) axis plays a major role in phosphate homeostasis, but clinical features of, for example, vitamin D

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S J Brandt Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany

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M Kleinert Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany

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M H Tschöp Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany
Division of Metabolic Diseases, Technische Universität, Munich, Germany

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T D Müller Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany

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hormone OXM. In order to boost the activity and efficacy of OXM, d-Serine was substituted at position 2 and a cholesterol moiety was added to the C-terminus of the peptide ( Pocai et al. 2009 ). The resulting DualAG peptide showed nearly balanced potency

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Thomas G Hill Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

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Lorna I F Smith Diabetes Research Group, School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK

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Inmaculada Ruz-Maldonado Department of Internal Medicine (Endocrinology), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

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Peter M Jones Diabetes Research Group, School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK

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James E Bowe Diabetes Research Group, School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK

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-cell adaptive changes during gestation are not fully understood. It is well established that the lactogenic hormones, prolactin (Prl) and placental lactogen (PL), play an important role in driving β-cell proliferation and increasing glucose-stimulated insulin

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Hiroyuki Enomoto Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Kinuyo Iwata Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Keisuke Matsumoto Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Mai Otsuka Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Akio Morita Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Hitoshi Ozawa Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

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Introduction Encoded by the Kiss1 gene, kisspeptin and its receptor, G protein-coupled receptor 54, stimulate the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)/luteinizing hormone (LH) in mammals and are crucial in ovulation regulation

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Md Nurul Islam Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

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Yuichiro Mita Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
Systems Life Sciences Laboratory, Department of Medical Life Systems, Faculty of Life and Medical Sciences, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

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Keisuke Maruyama Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

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Ryota Tanida Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
Department of Sports and Fitness, Faculty of Wellness, Shigakkan University, Aichi, Japan

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Weidong Zhang Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

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Hideyuki Sakoda Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

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Masamitsu Nakazato Division of Neurology, Respirology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
CREST (Japan) Agency for Medical Research and Development (A-MED) 1-7-1 Otemachi, Tokyo, Japan

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Introduction Ghrelin, a 28-amino acid acylated peptide originally isolated from rat and human stomach, is involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis and growth hormone (GH) secretion ( Kojima et al. 1999 , Nakazato et al. 2001

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Seokwon Jo Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

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Emilyn U Alejandro Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

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pancreatic beta-cells not expanding and functioning adequately. These beta-cells are responsible for producing and releasing insulin, an anabolic hormone crucial for regulating stable glucose levels by promoting glucose absorption in insulin

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