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in human alveolar macrophages ( Milewich et al. 1983 ) and synovial macrophages ( Cutolo et al. 1996 ), as well as murine T lymphocytes ( Samy et al. 2001 ). Mechanisms of androgen signalling Classically, androgen signalling is mediated
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& Goetz 2001 , Laing et al. 2001 ). Interestingly, TNFα mRNA expression has been reported in primary trout monocytes ( Zou et al. 2002 , MacKenzie et al. 2003 ) and in in vitro differentiated macrophages after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide
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Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Molecular Biology Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 615 Charles E Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Molecular Biology Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 615 Charles E Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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involved in mediating innate immune responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Liu et al . 2006 ). The DNA array analysis of macrophages activated with an M tuberculosis lipoprotein highlighted the induction of mRNA for both the vitamin D receptor (VDR
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observed in OVX. Increased fat leads to the accumulation of adipose tissue macrophage (ATM), which plays a critical role in chronic inflammation and development of insulin resistance (IR) ( Shoelson et al . 2007 ). Exacerbation of insulin sensitivity is
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Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Division of Endocrinology, Charleston, South Carolina 29401, USA
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Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Division of Endocrinology, Charleston, South Carolina 29401, USA
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that are prone to rupture consist of a larger intimal lesion and an increased number of macrophages. Analysis of gene expression in atherosclerotic plaques showed that when compared with stable plaques, vulnerable plaques have higher expression of
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haematopoietic origin and are most closely related to the monocyte/macrophage precursor cells ( Takahashi et al . 2002 ). Activation of the c-Fms receptor on these cells by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), released by stromal cells, or osteoblasts
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the development of diabetic nephropathy ( Schrijvers et al . 2004 ). Increasing evidence shows that aberrant inflammatory responses, such as macrophage infiltration and overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines, are present in the diabetic kidney
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tissue from humans with obesity and obese mice models is infiltrated with increased numbers of macrophages provides a major mechanistic advance into understanding obesity-associated inflammation ( Olefsky & Glass 2010 ). These adipose tissue macrophages
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Departments of, Cardiovascular Medicine, Advanced Therapeutics for Cardiovascular Diseases, Kyushu University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Fukuoka, Japan
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Departments of, Cardiovascular Medicine, Advanced Therapeutics for Cardiovascular Diseases, Kyushu University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Fukuoka, Japan
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( Shoelson et al . 2006 ). These cytokines, so-called adipokines, cause inflammation and recruitment of macrophages to adipose tissue ( Xu et al . 2003 ), which is another important mechanism for obesity-induced insulin resistance. The infiltrated
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various immune cells ( Osborn & Olefsky 2012 ). More recently, studies have shown that adipose tissue macrophages derived from lean mice express markers of M2, or ‘alternative activated’, macrophages. In contrast, obese states are concomitant with M1, or