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J Bancroft The Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Morrison Hall third floor, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA

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stimulus ( Carani et al. 1995 ). Nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT), the occurrence of spontaneous erections during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, is relevant. The neurophysiological basis of NPT is still disputed, but one plausible

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Silvia Begliuomini
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Elena Lenzi
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Filippo Ninni
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Elena Casarosa
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Sara Merlini
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Nicola Pluchino
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Valeria Valentino
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Stefano Luisi Division of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Reproductive Medicine and Child Development, University of Pisa, Pisa 56100, Italy

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Michele Luisi
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Andrea R Genazzani
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. In fact, it has been shown that BDNF presents a very short half-life in plasma ( t 1/2 =0.92 min; Poduslo & Curran 1996 ), and then it is conceivable that BDNF is secreted with a pulsatory circadian rhythm, featured by a progressive reduction in the

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Alison Mostyn Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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Sylvain Sebert Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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Jennie C Litten Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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Katharine S Perkins Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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John Laws Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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Michael E Symonds Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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Lynne Clarke Institute of Clinical Research, Centre for Reproduction and Early Life, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College London, Wye Campus, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, UK

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lack of leptin-binding protein. A portion of leptin found in the circulation exists bound to a short form of the leptin receptor thought to be a binding protein ( Huang et al. 2001 ). Although the long- and short-form of the leptin receptor are

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Michael E Symonds Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Nottingham Digestive Disease Centre and Biomedical Research Centre, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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Peter Aldiss Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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Neele Dellschaft Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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James Law Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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Hernan P Fainberg Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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Mark Pope Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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Harold Sacks VA Endocrinology and Diabetes Division, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, and Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Helen Budge Early Life Research Unit, Division of Child Health, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

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the thermal environment The development and maturation of adipose tissue varies substantially between large and small mammals. The latter are born with an immature hypothalamic–pituitary axis after a short gestation with very little capacity for

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Eva M G Viho Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Jan Kroon Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Corcept Therapeutics, Menlo Park, CA, USA

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Richard A Feelders Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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René Houtman Precision Medicine Lab, Oss, the Netherlands

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Elisabeth S R van den Dungen Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Alberto M Pereira Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

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Hazel J Hunt Corcept Therapeutics, Menlo Park, CA, USA

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Leo J Hofland Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Onno C Meijer Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Corcept Therapeutics, Menlo Park, CA, USA

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metabolic syndrome, i.e. visceral fat accumulation, insulin resistance, hypertension and dyslipidemia ( Kalsbeek et al. 2015 ), and with a range of neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression, impaired memory and sleep disturbances ( Pivonello et al

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Shelley Gorman Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

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Alexander N Larcombe Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

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Hayley E Christian Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

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outdoor physical activity, with other proposed benefits for mental health, sleep, social contact, and reduced exposure to urban pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), particulate matter, noise and heat ( Kumar et al. 2019 ). Potential risks from

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Marian Joëls Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

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pathways ( Joels & Baram 2009 ). Almost without exception, this involves G-protein-coupled receptors, which upon binding of the ligand mediate actions that develop within minutes and generally are short lasting, due to dissociation of the ligand from the

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C E Koch University of Lübeck, Chronophysiology Group, Medical Department 1, Lübeck, Germany

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M S Bartlang University of Würzburg, Biocenter, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Neurobiology and Genetics, Würzburg, Germany

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J T Kiehn University of Lübeck, Chronophysiology Group, Medical Department 1, Lübeck, Germany

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L Lucke Department of Behavioral and Molecular Neurobiology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany

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N Naujokat University of Lübeck, Chronophysiology Group, Medical Department 1, Lübeck, Germany

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C Helfrich-Förster University of Würzburg, Biocenter, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Neurobiology and Genetics, Würzburg, Germany

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S O Reber Department of Behavioral and Molecular Neurobiology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany

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H Oster University of Lübeck, Chronophysiology Group, Medical Department 1, Lübeck, Germany

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rats that mild chronic subordination leads to reduced activity, altered sleeping patterns and increased body temperature, which suggests an increased metabolic rate as response to SDL ( Ahnaou & Drinkenburg 2016 ), which is also reported in squirrels

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C García-Luna Department of Neurosciences Research, Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Mexico City, Mexico

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P Soberanes-Chávez Department of Neurosciences Research, Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Mexico City, Mexico

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P de Gortari Department of Neurosciences Research, Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Mexico City, Mexico

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the light phase induces leptin and insulin release in an unusual circadian time, with a consequent activation of brain peptides’ synthesis that leads to an aberrant control of energy homeostasis. Prepuberal darkness-phase feeding, which had a short

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Yan Zhou Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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Jacob Bendor Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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Lauren Hofmann Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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Matthew Randesi Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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Ann Ho Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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Mary Jeanne Kreek Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA

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). It has been established that the hypothalamic orexins (orexins A and B) are involved in the regulation of sleep, arousal, feeding, and stress ( Saper et al. 2005 , Winsky-Sommerer et al. 2005 ). There is a growing body of evidence suggesting a

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