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Chen-Che Jeff Huang Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

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Yuan Kang Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

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studies as being linked to the development and/or regression of the X-zone. Sex steroid hormones The sexual dimorphism of X-zone regression suggests a possible role of sex steroid hormones on inner cortical cells. In male mice, castration increases

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Ferran Jardí Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Michaël R Laurent Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Vanessa Dubois Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Nari Kim Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Rougin Khalil Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Brigitte Decallonne Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Dirk Vanderschueren Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Frank Claessens Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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into E2 was required remained debated (see discussion in the ‘Replacement and pharmacological studies in adult rodents’ section). Physical activity is a sexually dimorphic trait in rodents ( Eikelboom & Mills 1988 ), with females being more active than

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A Santillo Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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L Burrone Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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S Falvo Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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R Senese Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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A Lanni Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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G Chieffi Baccari Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, via Vivaldi, 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy

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al . 2011 a ), as well sexual dimorphism in the golden hamster gland ( McMasters & Hoffman 1984 , Santillo et al . 2008 , Coto-Montes et al . 2009 ). Furthermore, significant evidence suggests that this gland is a target for thyroid hormones (TH

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F Vilchis Department of Reproductive Biology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Vasco de Quiroga no. 15, Del. Tlalpan C.P. 14000, México D.F., Mexico

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L Ramos Department of Reproductive Biology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Vasco de Quiroga no. 15, Del. Tlalpan C.P. 14000, México D.F., Mexico

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C Timossi Department of Reproductive Biology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Vasco de Quiroga no. 15, Del. Tlalpan C.P. 14000, México D.F., Mexico

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B Chávez Department of Reproductive Biology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Vasco de Quiroga no. 15, Del. Tlalpan C.P. 14000, México D.F., Mexico

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sexual differences may be easily reversed by changes in sex hormones; castration of adult males increases the intraglandular content of these pigments, and administration of androgens to adult females decreases their intraglandular content ( Hoffman

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Zhihao Liu Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Fengrui Wu Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Baowei Jiao Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Xiuyue Zhang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Chongjiang Hu Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Baofeng Huang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Linyan Zhou Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Xigui Huang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Zhijian Wang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Yaoguang Zhang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Yoshitaka Nagahama Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Christopher H K Cheng Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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Deshou Wang Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Science, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
Department of Biochemistry and the Environmental Science Programme, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China

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melanocortin-3 receptor mRNA expression in mouse pituitary glands in vivo and in vitro . Neuroendocrinology 80 143 –151. Melo AC & Ramsdell JS 2001 Sexual dimorphism of brain aromatase activity in medaka: induction of a

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Dieuwertje C E Spaanderman Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Mark Nixon BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Jacobus C Buurstede Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Hetty H C M Sips Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Maaike Schilperoort Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Eline N Kuipers Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Emma A Backer Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Sander Kooijman Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Patrick C N Rensen Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Natalie Z M Homer BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

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Brian R Walker BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Institute for Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

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Onno C Meijer Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Jan Kroon Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands

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different peripheral tissues, distinct AR-mediated effects on glucocorticoid regulation thus underlie the reduced GR-regulated transcriptional activity. Sexual dimorphism exists in metabolic processes and affects incidence of metabolic disease. For example

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Jenny D Y Chow Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of
Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of

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Margaret E E Jones Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of
Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of

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Katja Prelle Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of

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Evan R Simpson Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of
Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of

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Wah Chin Boon Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of
Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of
Prince Henry's Institute, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bayer Pharma AG, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia Departments of

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Lucier GW 1983 Hepatic estrogen responsiveness. Possible mechanisms for sexual dimorphism . Molecular Pharmacology 24 69 – 76 . Völzke H Schwarz S Baumeister SE Wallaschofski H Schwahn C Grabe HJ Kohlmann T John U Dören M

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Chandrika D Mahalingam Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Tanuka Datta Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Rashmi V Patil Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Jaclynn Kreider Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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R Daniel Bonfil Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Keith L Kirkwood Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Steven A Goldstein Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Abdul B Abou-Samra Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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Nabanita S Datta Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
Division of Endocrinology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Department of Urology and Pathology, Departments of Craniofacial Biology and Microbiology and Immunology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA

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sexual dimorphism is not just the end result of differences in sex steroid secretion between the sexes, but depends on gender differences in GH–insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and mechanical sensitivity to loading as well ( Callewaert et al . 2010

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Chiung-Kuei Huang George Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Pathology, Urology, and The Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA

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Soo Ok Lee George Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Pathology, Urology, and The Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA

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Eugene Chang George Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Pathology, Urology, and The Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
Department of Medicine, Case Cardiovascular Institute Research Institute, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA

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Haiyan Pang George Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Pathology, Urology, and The Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA

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Chawnshang Chang George Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Pathology, Urology, and The Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
Sex Hormone Research Center, China Medical University/Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan

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differences in stroke epidemiology: a systematic review . Stroke 40 1082 – 1090 . ( doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.540781 ) Ashton N Balment RJ 1991 Sexual dimorphism in renal function and hormonal status of New Zealand genetically hypertensive

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Brenda Anguiano Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Juriquilla, Km 15, Carretera Qro-SLP, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Mexico City 09340, México

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Alejandra López Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Juriquilla, Km 15, Carretera Qro-SLP, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Mexico City 09340, México

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Guadalupe Delgado Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Juriquilla, Km 15, Carretera Qro-SLP, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Mexico City 09340, México

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Carlos Romero Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Juriquilla, Km 15, Carretera Qro-SLP, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Mexico City 09340, México

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Carmen Aceves Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Juriquilla, Km 15, Carretera Qro-SLP, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Mexico City 09340, México

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factors ( Bianco et al. 2002 , Kohrle 2002 ). Hepatic D1 activity is higher in male than in female rats ( Harris et al. 1979 ); although the mechanisms have not been completely elucidated, the participation of testosterone in this sexual dimorphism

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