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). Increasing evidence indicates that glucocorticoids play an essential role in developmental ‘programming’ of health and disease ( Bolt et al. 2001 ). Glucocorticoids are required for the development of lung, brain, gastrointestinal system, renal system and
Departments of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Lunenfeld Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Environmental Epigenetics and Development, University of Toronto, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada
Department of Cell and Systems Biology, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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fundamental link between adverse early environments and developmental programming of later disease. The underlying biological mechanisms that connect the perinatal environment with modified long-term health outcomes and represent an intensive area of research
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. 2011 ). Studies showed that rats participating in training programs of short-duration (10–20 min) and low intensity had higher life expectancies ( Retzlaff et al . 1966 , Edington et al . 1972 ). According to the WHO (2002) , ‘exclusive
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the nutritional, hormonal and environmental factors observed in the early stages of development have long-term effects on hormonal and metabolic homeostasis. This association can be characterized as a metabolic programming phenomenon, which is defined
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poised to be further elaborated and synaptically sculpted by important environmental factors encountered by the freely living individual after birth. Although we will not cover details of development nor prenatal developmental programming in this review
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metabolic programming ( de Moura et al . 2008 , Lisboa et al . 2012 ). Recently, some studies have shown that tobacco exposure in utero is associated with changes in gene methylation profile ( Suter et al . 2010 , 2011 ), and the same event was
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et al. 1997 ) famine studies has shown that maternal undernutrition programs long-term metabolic dysfunction in the offspring and that some subtle characteristics of this metabolic impairment depend on the period when the maternal undernutrition
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often remain dormant, requiring an activational step to unmask the programmed phenotypic and behavioral changes. An example of such activational processes is evident in reproductive behavior. While the neurocircuitry required for reproductive behaviors
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
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programming. This is mediated in part by adaptation of the fetus to adverse conditions that are encountered during development in utero . Examples of such stressors include maternal nutrient restriction, hypoxia, physical trauma, as well as exposure to
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Hospital for Sick Children, The University of Toronto, Kinderklinik UK‐Essen, The University of Duisburg‐Essen, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Hospital for Sick Children, The University of Toronto, Kinderklinik UK‐Essen, The University of Duisburg‐Essen, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Hospital for Sick Children, The University of Toronto, Kinderklinik UK‐Essen, The University of Duisburg‐Essen, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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origins ( Rosen & Bouxsein 2006 ). As obesity and osteoporosis are examples of so-called ‘later in life diseases’, which might be programmed very early in life, their origins may lie in the perinatal environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that