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P Nguyen Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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S Khurana Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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H Peltsch Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Grandbois Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Eibl Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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J Crispo Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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D Ansell Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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T C Tai Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Medical Sciences Division, Departments of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Program, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

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& Sennlaub 2005 , Ligi et al . 2010 ), as well as altered activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) ( Bouret 2009 , Boyne et al . 2009 ), and the sympatho-adrenal (SA) axes ( Young 2002 , Johansson et al . 2007 ). Further, studies have

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F McManus
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R Fraser
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E Davies
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J M C Connell Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, 126 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK

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E M Freel
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series of rare monogenic disorders of corticosteroid synthesis (congenital adrenal hypertrophy (CAH)), where abnormal levels of intermediate compounds can be both pathogenic and diagnostic ( Miller & Auchus 2011 ). Importantly, qualitatively similar but

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Kelly De Sousa INSERM, UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

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Alaa B Abdellatif INSERM, UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

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Rami M El Zein INSERM, UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

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Maria-Christina Zennaro INSERM, UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Paris, France
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France

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Introduction Primary aldosteronism (PA) is due to excessive and autonomous aldosterone production by the adrenal cortex. It is the most frequent form of secondary hypertension with an estimated prevalence up to 10% in referred patients, 4% in

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Ronald J van der Sluis Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands

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Miranda Van Eck Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands

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Menno Hoekstra Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands

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Introduction Cholesterol is the sole precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones including adrenal-derived glucocorticoids, i.e., cortisol in man and corticosterone in rodents. The cholesterol used for steroidogenesis can theoretically be

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Ryo Morimoto
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Fumitoshi Satoh
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Osamu Murakami
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Takuo Hirose Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Kazuhito Totsune Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Yutaka Imai Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Yoichi Arai Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Takashi Suzuki Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Hironobu Sasano Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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Sadayoshi Ito
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Kazuhiro Takahashi Division of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Urology, Department of Pathology and Histotechnology, Department of Pathology, Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan

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al . 2004 ). It is well known that adrenal medulla and pheochromocytomas express various neuropeptides and vasoactive peptides, such as neuropeptide Y (NPY) and AM, and their receptors ( Hinson et al . 2000 , Spinazzi et al . 2005 ). Moreover

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Chen-Che Jeff Huang Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

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Yuan Kang Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

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Introduction Zona glomerulosa (ZG), zona fasciculata (ZF) and zona reticularis (ZR) are the three major cortical zones (definitive zones) in the mammalian adrenal gland. In human fetal adrenals, there is another cortical layer in the inner

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Wendy B Bollag Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, One Freedom Way, Augusta, GA, USA
Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University (formerly Georgia Regents University), Augusta, GA, USA

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have each been shown to play a role in regulating steroidogenesis in the adrenal cortex. This review discusses each in turn, as well as the evidence linking them to adrenal steroid hormone production. Figure 1 The reactions catalyzed by

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Maria Candida Barisson Villares Fragoso Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Guilherme Asmar Alencar Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Antonio Marcondes Lerario Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Isabelle Bourdeau Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Madson Queiroz Almeida Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Berenice Bilharinho Mendonca Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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André Lacroix Unidade de Suprarrenal, Instituto do Câncer de São Paulo ICESP, Département de Médecine, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

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Introduction Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (AIMAH) is a rare and insidious cause of Cushing's syndrome (CS), and accounts for <2% of all endogenous cases of CS ( Arnaldi et al . 2003 , Lacroix

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Satoko Haeno Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Naoyuki Maeda Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine
Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Takeshi Yagi Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Sachi Tahata Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Michiko Sato Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Kanako Sakaguchi Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Taku Miyasho Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Hiromi Ueda Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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Hiroshi Yokota Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Japan Meat Science and Technology Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine

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, including polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxin, lindab and others, can affect the synthesis of adrenal steroids; however, only a few studies investigating their effects on the adrenal glands and adrenal steroidogenesis have been carried out, and no studies of

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T V Novoselova Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK.

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D Jackson Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK.

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D C Campbell Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK.

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A J L Clark Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK.

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L F Chan Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK.

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Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis The adrenal glands are responsible for releasing different classes of hormones. The inner part of the glands, the medulla, secretes catecholamines under the control of the sympathetic nervous system. The outer

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