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Robin Kristófi Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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Jan W Eriksson Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Diabetes and Metabolism, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

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Introduction Metformin is a biguanide drug that is widely prescribed as an oral antihyperglycaemic agent internationally and is recommended as the initial drug of choice for type 2 diabetes (T2D) according to recent joint European

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Christina Antza Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Georgios Kostopoulos Department of Endocrinology, 424 General Military Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece

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Samiul Mostafa Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Krishnarajah Nirantharakumar Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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Abd Tahrani Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
Centre of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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) ( https://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.REGION2480A?lang=en Accessed (September) (2021)). Considering the health and economic consequences associated with obesity (type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, mortality), there

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Nicole G Barra Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Fernando F Anhê Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Joseph F Cavallari Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Anita M Singh Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Darryl Y Chan Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Jonathan D Schertzer Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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extraction from food ( Bäckhed et al. 2007 ). The gut microbiota can also influence blood glucose. Lower bacterial diversity correlates with insulin resistance and higher adiposity (reviewed in Zhu & Goodarzi 2020 ). Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated

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Sarah J Richardson Islet Biology Group, Exeter Centre for Excellence in Diabetes (EXCEED), Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (IBCS), University of Exeter, RILD Level 4, Exeter, UK

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Alberto Pugliese Division of Diabetes Endocrinology and Metabolism, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, Diabetes Research Institute, Leonard Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA

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Introduction Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic disease characterized by severe loss of insulin secretion, requiring insulin replacement therapy for the individual’s lifetime. The disease is often diagnosed in children and adolescents, but

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Marion Régnier UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Matthias Van Hul UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium

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Claude Knauf Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, INSERM U1220, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive (IRSD), CHU Purpan, Place du Docteur Baylac, Toulouse Cedex 3, France
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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Patrice D Cani UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, WELBIO – Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Brussels, Belgium
European Associated Laboratory (EAL) ‘NeuroMicrobiota’, Brussels/Toulouse, Belgium

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Introduction Obesity is linked with many cardiometabolic risk factors, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Although lowering body weight is effective for alleviating several of these

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Yanli Miao Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Haojie Qin Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Yi Zhong Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Kai Huang Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Caijun Rao Department of Geriatrics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

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Introduction Obesity and obesity-related disorders such as type 2 diabetes are steadily increasing worldwide with the improvement of people’s living standards and unhealthy lifestyle ( Mohammed et al. 2018 ). Obesity is a pathophysiological

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