In order to gain better insight into the molecular events involved in the signal transduction generated through glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors, we tested the effect of deletions and point mutations within the cytoplasmic tail of this receptor with a view to establishing relationships between signal transduction desensitisation and receptor internalisation. Wild-type and truncated (deletion of the last 27 amino acids (GLPR 435R) and deletion of 44 amino acids (GLPR 418R)) GLP-1 receptors bound the agonist with similar affinity. Deletion of the last 27 amino acids decreased the internalisation rate by 78%, while deletion of 44 amino acids containing all the phosphorylation sites hitherto described in this receptor decreased the internalisation rate by only 47%. Binding of the ligand to both receptors stimulated adenylyl cyclase. In contrast, deletion of the region containing amino acids 419 to 435 (GLPR 419Δ435) increased the internalisation rate by 268%, and the replacement of EVQ^408–410 by alanine (GLPR A^408–410) increased this process to 296%. In both receptors, the efficacy in stimulating adenylate cyclase was decreased. All the receptors studied were internalised by coated pits, except for the receptor with a deletion of the last 44 amino acids, which also had a faster resensitisation rate. Our findings indicate that the neighbouring trans-membrane domain of the carboxyl-terminal tail of the GLP-1 receptor contains sequence elements that regulate agonist-dependent internalisation and transmembrane signalling.

Several G-protein-coupled receptors contain cysteine residues in the C-terminal tail that may modulate receptor function. In this work we analysed the substitution of Cys⁴³⁸ by alanine in the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor (GLPR), which led to a threefold decrease in cAMP production, although endocytosis and cellular redistribution of GLP-1 receptor agonist-induced processes were unaffected. Additionally, cysteine residues in the C-terminal tail of several G-protein-coupled receptors were found to act as substrates for palmitoylation, which might modify the access of protein kinases to this region. His-tagged GLP-1 receptors incorporated ³H-palmitate. Nevertheless, substitution of Cys⁴³⁸ prevented the incorporation of palmitate. Accordingly, we also investigated the effect of substitution of the consensus sequence by protein kinase C (PKC) Ser^431/432 in both wild-type and Ala⁴³⁸ GLP-1 receptors. Substitution of Ser^431/432 by alanine did not modify the ability of wild-type receptors to stimulate adenylate cyclase or endocytosis and recycling processes. By contrast, the substitution of Ser^431/432 by alanine in the receptor containing Ala⁴³⁸ increased the ability to stimulate adenylate cyclase. All types of receptors were mainly internalised through coated pits. Thus, cysteine 438 in the cytoplasmic tail of the GLP-1 receptor would regulate its interaction with G-proteins and the stimulation of adenylyl cyclase. Palmitoylation of this residue might control the access of PKC to Ser^431/432.

In an attempt to study the role of glucokinase (GK) and the effects of glucose and peptides on GK gene expression and on the activity of this enzyme in the hypothalamus, we used two kinds of biological models: hypothalamic GT1-7 cells and rat hypothalamic slices. The expression of the GK gene in GT1-7 cells was reduced by insulin (INS) and was not modified by different glucose concentrations, while GK enzyme activities were significantly reduced by the different peptides. Interestingly, a distinctive pattern of GK activities between the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) and lateral hypothalamus (LH) were found, with higher enzyme activities in the VMH as the glucose concentrations rose, while LH enzyme activities decreased at 2.8 and 20 mM glucose, the latter effect being prevented by incubation with INS. These effects were produced only by d-glucose and the modifications found were due to GK, but not to other hexokinases. In addition, GK activities in the VMH and the LH were reduced by glucagon-like peptide 1, leptin, orexin B, INS, and neuropeptide Y (NPY), but this effect was only statistically significant for NPY in LH. Our results indicate that the effects of both glucose and peptides occur on GK enzyme activities rather than on GK gene transcription. Moreover, the effects of glucose and INS on GK activity suggest that in the brain GK behaves in a manner opposite to that in the liver, which might facilitate its role in glucose sensing. Finally, hypothalamic slices seem to offer a good physiological model to discriminate the effects between different areas.