It has been shown that IGF-I has an anabolic effect in the normal fetus. However, there is evidence to suggest that there may be IGF-I resistance in the growth retarded fetus. Therefore, we investigated the effects of acute IGF-I infusion to chronically catheterised fetal sheep. At 128 days gestation, fetuses underwent a 4 h infusion of IGF-I (50 microg/kg/h). Three groups of animals were studied. Nine normally grown fetuses were studied as controls. Embolised animals (n=8) received microspheres into the uterine vasculature, and animals with spontaneous intra-uterine growth retardation (IUGR animals) (n=6) were fetuses found at post mortem to be spontaneously growth restricted. The effects of IGF-I infusion on feto-placental carbohydrate and protein metabolism were similar in our control group to previous similar experiments. IGF-I infusion decreased fetal blood glucose, oxygen, urea and amino-nitrogen concentrations, and inhibited placental lactate production. The same fetal blood metabolite concentrations also fell during IGF-I infusion in the embolised fetuses, but the effect on placental lactate production was not seen. The only effect of IGF-I infusion in the spontaneous IUGR animals was a fall in fetal blood amino-nitrogen concentrations. We conclude that fetal IGF-I infusion does not have the same anabolic effects in the growth retarded fetus as the normal fetus. In addition, the effects of IGF-I were different in the two growth retarded groups. Our data support previous evidence that the growth retarded fetus has altered IGF-I sensitivity, and this may vary depending on the cause, severity and duration of growth retardation.

Infants with upper gut atresia often have impaired intrauterine growth and gut function. IGF-I is important in fetal growth and is contained in amniotic fluid. We therefore wanted to test the hypothesis that IGF-I infused into fetal gut would reverse the effects of an upper gut obstruction on gut structure and growth in fetal sheep. At 90 days gestation fetuses (n=6 per group) underwent oesophageal ligation, followed by continuous infusion of IGF-I (1-8 microgram/day) or saline into the gut beyond the ligation until 137 days. Controls underwent sham ligation only. Oesophageal ligation tended to reduce fetal body and organ weights. IGF-I treatment prevented this reduction and increased body length and spleen weight above those of controls. The decrease in bowel wall thickness induced by oesophageal ligation was also prevented by IGF-I treatment. Amniotic fluid IGF-I concentrations did not change over gestation and were higher in the IGF-I treated group. No change in fetal plasma IGF-I concentrations were detectable. We conclude that enterally administered IGF-I may enhance fetal growth and gut development in utero and that IGF-I in amniotic fluid may play a physiological role in gut development in the fetus.

Exposure of the fetus to excess maternal glucocorticoids has been postulated to alter fetal growth and development, and thus provide a possible mechanism for the link between impaired fetal growth and altered postnatal physiology. However, the effects of exposure to excess maternal glucocorticoids on fetal physiology and metabolism in utero have not been described. We therefore studied the effects of chronic maternal cortisol infusion on fetal growth, blood pressure, metabolism and endocrine status in chronically catheterised fetal sheep. We infused hydrocortisone (80 mg/day, n=6) or saline (n=8) for 10 days into the pregnant ewes beginning at 119 days of gestation. Maternal cortisol infusion reduced fetal growth rate by 30% (girth increment 2.9+/-0.3 vs 1.8+/-0.4 mm/day, P=0.03). Maternal cortisol infusion increased fetal heart weight by 15% relative to body weight and increased ventricular wall thickness by 30% in the left and 50% in the right ventricle. The weight of the spleen was reduced by 30% and placental weight reduced by 25%. Fetal blood pressure increased by approximately 10 mmHg (20%) during maternal cortisol infusion. Maternal cortisol infusion did not alter amino-nitrogen concentrations. However, maternal lactate concentrations increased by 80% and fetal lactate concentrations increased by 74% with maternal cortisol infusion, and both maternal and fetal urea concentrations increased by 40%. Circulating maternal IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)-3 levels had increased by 20% by the end of the maternal cortisol infusion. Fetal IGF-I concentrations decreased during cortisol infusion and fetal IGFBP-1 concentrations were negatively correlated with fetal weight (r=-0.76, P=0.02). We conclude that even a modest elevation of maternal cortisol levels affects fetal growth, cardiovascular function, metabolism and endocrine status which may have long-term consequences.

The role of GH in the regulation of fetal growth and metabolism in late gestation is not well defined. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of exogenous GH infusion on fetal growth and feto-placental metabolism in the normally growing late-gestation fetal sheep. Eleven fetuses received pulsatile GH infusion (3.5 mg/day) for 10 days while 12 control fetuses received vehicle. The GH infusion was given as a continuous infusion (2.5 mg/day) plus an additional pulsatile component (30 pulses equivalent to 1 mg/day) designed to mimic the natural pattern of GH secretion. Fetal GH infusion raised the circulating fetal concentrations of GH threefold, but did not change fetal concentrations of IGF-I, IGF-binding protein-3, insulin or ovine placental lactogen. GH-treated fetuses had blood urea concentrations 15% lower than controls (P<0.05) and glucose uptake 18% lower per kg fetal weig! ht (P=0.06). There were no other differences attributable to fetal GH infusion in feto-placental metabolism, placental function or placental blood flow. GH-treated fetuses were larger than controls at postmortem (weight+13%, P<0.01; girth+5%, P<0.01; crown-rump length+3%, P<0.05). However, there were no differences between groups in measures of fetal growth (increment in chest girth and hindlimb length). GH-treated fetuses had heavier mothers and when maternal weight was included as a covariate in the analysis, there was no significant difference between treatment groups that could be attributed to GH treatment. GH infusion to normal fetal sheep does not appear to have a significant effect on feto-placental metabolism or fetal growth.

Acute infusion of IGF-I to the fetus has been shown to inhibit amino acid oxidation and appears to increase fetoplacental amino acid uptake. This study was designed to investigate further the effects of IGF-I on fetal amino acid metabolism. Radiolabeled serine was used to test the hypothesis that fetal IGF-I infusion enhances serine uptake into the fetus and/or placenta and inhibits serine oxidation. Eight fetal sheep were studied at 127 days of gestation before and during a 4-h infusion of IGF-I (50 microg/h per kg). During the infusion there was no change in uptake of serine or its oxidation by fetus or placenta. However, both uptake and oxidation of serine and glycine decreased in the fetal carcass. There was also a decrease in fetal blood serine and glycine concentrations which could indicate a decrease in protein breakdown, although reduced amino acid synthesis cannot be excluded. Thus IGF-I appeared to influence the distribution of these amino acids as oxidative substrates between different fetal tissues. In addition, fetal IGF-I infusion increased the conversion of serine to glycine which is likely to have increased the availability of one-carbon groups for biosynthesis. Our data provide further evidence that IGF-I plays a role in the regulation of fetoplacental amino acid metabolism.

It has been demonstrated in several animal models that undernutrition in utero has significant long lasting effects on subsequent fetal and postnatal development. To address the hypothesis that the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) may mediate such effects, our study examined whether a period of periconceptual maternal undernutrition could have a lasting influence on the IGF axis in the fetal sheep. Ewes were either allowed to feed ad libitum or kept undernourished from day 60 prior to mating until day 30 after conception, and then both groups were allowed to feed ad libitum. These groups were further divided at day 105 of gestation, either being fed ad libitum or undernourished until day 115 of gestation. Fetal and maternal blood samples were obtained at both day 105 and 115 of gestation. We describe the development of a specific homologous RIA to measure ovine IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) in fetal and maternal sheep plasma. Fetal plasma IGFBP-3 and IGF-I concentrations were significantly (P<0.05) reduced at day 115 of gestation after maternal undernutrition. The fetal plasma IGFBP-2 levels were unchanged. The degree of reduction in fetal plasma IGFBP-3 and IGF-I between day 105 and 115 of gestation as a response to acute maternal undernutrition was significantly greater (P<0.05) in fetuses of mothers receiving low periconceptual nutrition. The response of maternal plasma IGFBP-3 and IGF-I to undernutrition did not depend on the level of periconceptual nutrition. Western blot data indicate that changes in either maternal or fetal plasma IGFBP-3 concentrations were not the result of increased proteolytic activity. These results suggest that exposure to maternal periconceptual undernutrition reprograms IGFBP-3 and IGF-I regulation in the developing sheep fetus, altering its response to undernutrition in late gestation.

Intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a major cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Postnatally, growth hormone (GH) increases growth, increases circulating insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I levels, and alters metabolism. Our aim was to determine if GH infusion to IUGR fetal sheep would alter fetal growth and metabolism, and thus provide a potential intra-uterine treatment for the IUGR fetus. We studied three groups of fetuses: control, IUGR+ vehicle and IUGR+GH (n=5 all groups). IUGR was induced by repeated embolisation of the placental vascular bed between 110 and 116 days of gestation (term=145 days). GH (3.5 mg/kg/day) or vehicle was infused in a pulsatile manner from 117 to 127 days of gestation. Embolisation reduced fetal growth rate by 25% (P<0.01) and reduced the weight of the fetal liver (20%), kidney (23%) and thymus (31%; all P<0.05). GH treatment further reduced the weight of the fetal kidneys (32%) and small intestine (35%; both P<0.04), but restored the relative weight of the fetal thymus and liver (P<0.05). Embolisation decreased fetal plasma IGF-I concentrations (48%, P<0.001) and increased IGF binding protein 1 (IGFBP-1) concentrations (737%, P<0.002). GH treatment restored fetal plasma IGF-I concentrations to control levels, while levels in IUGR+vehicle fetuses stayed low (P<0.05 vs control). IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2 concentrations were about sevenfold lower in amniotic fluid than in fetal plasma, but amniotic and plasma concentrations were closely correlated (r=0.75, P<0.0001 and r=0.55 P<0.0001 respectively). Embolisation transiently decreased fetal blood oxygen content (40%, P<0.002), and increased blood lactate concentrations (213%, P<0.04). Both returned to pre-embolisation levels after embolisation stopped, but blood glucose concentrations declined steadily in IUGR+vehicle fetuses. GH treatment maintained fetal blood glucose concentrations at control levels. Our study shows that GH infusion to the IUGR fetal sheep restores fetal IGF-I levels but does not improve fetal growth, and further reduces the fetal kidney and intestine weights. Thus, fetal GH therapy does not seem a promising treatment stratagem for the IUGR fetus.