As a key regulator of bone homeostasis, sclerostin has garnered a lot of interest over the last two decades. Although sclerostin is primarily expressed by osteocytes and is well known for its role in bone formation and remodelling, it is also expressed by a number of other cells and potentially plays a role in other organs. Herein, we aim to bring together recent sclerostin research and discuss the effect of sclerostin on bone, cartilage, muscle, liver, kidney and the cardiovascular and immune systems. Particular focus is placed on its role in disease, such as osteoporosis and myeloma bone disease, and the novel development of sclerostin as a therapeutic target. Anti-sclerostin antibodies have recently been approved for treatment of osteoporosis. However, a cardiovascular signal was observed, prompting extensive research into the role of sclerostin in vascular and bone tissue crosstalk. Heightened sclerostin expression in chronic kidney disease resulted in investigation of its role in liver-lipid-bone interactions, and recent discovery of sclerostin as a myokine prompted new research into sclerostin within the bone-muscle relationship. Clearly the effects of sclerostin reach beyond that of bone alone. We further summarise recent developments in the use of sclerostin as a potential therapeutic for osteoarthritis, osteosarcoma and sclerosteosis. Together, these new treatments and discoveries illustrate progress within the field, however, also highlight remaining gaps in our knowledge.
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Timothy Dreyer, Jacob Keen, Leah Wells, and Scott Roberts
Scott M MacKenzie, Deborah Dewar, William Stewart, Robert Fraser, John M C Connell, and Eleanor Davies
Steroid actions on brain tissue have been implicated in processes such as blood pressure regulation and neurodegeneration, including the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). mRNAs from all of the genes required for de novo synthesis from cholesterol of aldosterone and corticosterone (equivalent to cortisol in humans) have been identified in rat brain, together with abundant steroid hormone receptors, but the situation in human brain requires clarification. We used real-time RT-PCR to assess whether transcription of 13 steroid-associated genes occurs in human hippocampus and cerebellum, and to identify whether transcription of these genes is significantly altered in cases of AD. Frozen post-mortem samples of hippocampus and cerebellum from patients with AD (n=7) and age-matched controls free from neurological disease at the time of death (n=9) were used. We found all of the genes under investigation to be transcribed within normal and AD hippocampus and cerebellum except for CYP11B1 (11β-hydroxylase), CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) and CYP17 (17α-hydroxylase). No significant differences in mRNA levels were observed between the AD tissue and the equivalent control tissue, although significant regional differences in gene transcription were observed between hippocampus and cerebellum in AD and control samples. The absence of key mRNAs from human hippocampus and cerebellum rules out the de novo generation of aldosterone, cortisol or the sex steroids within these regions. However, the pattern of gene expression does suggest that the mineralocorticoid 11-deoxycorticosterone can be generated de novo. There is no evidence of a link between AD and altered steroid biosynthesis within human hippocampus and cerebellum.
Fiona Roberts, Greg Markby, Scott Dillon, Colin Farquharson, and Vicky E MacRae
The physiological mineralisation of skeletal tissues, as well as the pathological mineralisation of soft tissues involves a fine balance between regulators that either promote or inhibit the process. In recent years, several studies have advocated a non-skeletal role for some of these mineralisation regulators in a range of human diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity and neurodegenerative disease. This is an emerging area of interest and the functional roles and mechanisms of action of these various endocrine factors, phosphatases and phosphodiesterase’s in important pathologies are the focus of this review. Mechanistic insight of the pathways through which these acknowledged regulators of skeletal mineralisation act beyond the skeleton has the potential to identify druggable targets for commonly experienced morbidities, notably those related to metabolism and metabolic syndrome.
Ping Ye, Christopher J Kenyon, Scott M MacKenzie, Katherine Nichol, Jonathan R Seckl, Robert Fraser, John M C Connell, and Eleanor Davies
Using a highly sensitive quantitative RT-PCR method for the measurement of CYP11B1 (11β-hydroxylase) and CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) mRNAs, we previously demonstrated that CYP11B2 expression in the central nervous system (CNS) is subject to regulation by dietary sodium. We have now quantified the expression of these genes in the CNS of male Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats in response to systemic ACTH infusion, dexamethasone infusion, and to adrenalectomy. CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 mRNA levels were measured in total RNA isolated from the adrenal gland and discrete brain regions using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. ACTH infusion (40 ng/day for 7 days, N=8) significantly increased CYP11B1 mRNA in the adrenal gland, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex compared with animals infused with vehicle only. ACTH infusion decreased adrenal CYP11B2 expression but increased expression in all of the CNS regions except the cortex. Dexamethasone (10 μg/day for 7 days, N=8) reduced adrenal CYP11B1 mRNA compared with control animals but had no significant effect on either gene's expression in the CNS. Adrenalectomy (N=6 per group) significantly increased CYP11B1 expression in the hippocampus and hypothalamus and raised CYP11B2 expression in the cerebellum relative to sham-operated animals. This study confirms the transcription of CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 throughout the CNS and demonstrates that gene transcription is subject to differential regulation by ACTH and circulating corticosteroid levels.