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behavior, since high levels of GHSR expression are recognized in the dopamine neurons in the VTA ( Zigman et al. 2006 ). It is suggested that ghrelin is involved in the brain reward circuits that are related to motivational properties, as well as hedonic
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Mitochondrial Neurobiology and Therapeutics Laboratory, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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Faculty of Medicine, School of Clinica Biochemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador (PUCE), Quito, Ecuador
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( Hofstetter et al . 1986 , Perkins 1992 ), and that those effects are the result of the modulatory effect of nicotine on both metabolic processes and reward circuits ( Blendy et al . 2005 , Porter 2017 ). Studies performed in rodents have shown that
Agrarian Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Veterinary Hospital, Curitiba, Brazil
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Department of Anatomy, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
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& Gainetdinov 2011 ). DA plays a critical role in the regulation of food intake. Its action in the hypothalamus is related to the promotion of food intake ( Meguid et al. 2000 ), but in reward circuits, it is associated with the gratifying aspects of food
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University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Psychiatry, Groningen, The Netherlands
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addiction-related stimuli. Obese individuals showed increased responsiveness to viewing pictures of food, which could be regarded as the addictive substance, in areas involved in reward circuits (such as the insula, putamen, caudate nucleus and amygdala
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-described hormonal regulators of homeostatic feeding may also influence brain reward systems and may increase or decrease the rewarding value of food depending on energy requirements ( Berthoud 2011 , Kenny 2011 ). Palatable food can activate brain reward circuits
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-homeostatic, hedonic feeding ( Pandit et al. 2013 , Sternson 2016 ). The brain reward circuit includes many brain areas, such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the nucleus accumbens, the LH, the amygdala, the striatum and the prefrontal cortex ( Pandit et al