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Hiroharu Mifune Institute of Animal Experimentation, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yuji Tajiri Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yusuke Sakai Institute of Animal Experimentation, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yukie Kawahara Department of Pharmacology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Kento Hara Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Takahiro Sato Molecular Genetics, Life Science Institute, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Yoshihiro Nishi Department of Physiology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Akinori Nishi Department of Pharmacology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Ryouichi Mitsuzono Department of Exercise Physiology, Institute of Health and Sports Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Tatsuyuki Kakuma Bostatistics Center, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Masayasu Kojima Molecular Genetics, Life Science Institute, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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behavior, since high levels of GHSR expression are recognized in the dopamine neurons in the VTA ( Zigman et al. 2006 ). It is suggested that ghrelin is involved in the brain reward circuits that are related to motivational properties, as well as hedonic

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Hiroharu Mifune Institute of Animal Experimentation, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yuji Tajiri Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yusuke Sakai Institute of Animal Experimentation, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Yukie Kawahara Department of Pharmacology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Kento Hara Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Takahiro Sato Molecular Genetics, Life Science Institute, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Yoshihiro Nishi Department of Physiology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Akinori Nishi Department of Pharmacology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan

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Ryouichi Mitsuzono Department of Exercise Physiology, Institute of Health and Sports Science, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Tatsuyuki Kakuma Bostatistics Center, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Masayasu Kojima Molecular Genetics, Life Science Institute, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

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Katie Wynne Endocrine Unit, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK

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Sarah Stanley Endocrine Unit, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK

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Barbara McGowan Endocrine Unit, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK

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Steve Bloom Endocrine Unit, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK

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homeostasis, it is now thought to be regulated by neuronal circuits, which signal using specific neuropeptides. The arcuate nucleus (ARC), in particular, is thought to play a pivotal role in the integration of signals regulating appetite. The ARC is

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Daniel J Tobiansky Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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George V Kachkovski Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia

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Reilly T Enos Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA

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Kim L Schmidt Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia

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E Angela Murphy Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA

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Kiran K Soma Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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critical circuit regulates motivation, reward seeking, and executive functions ( Floresco et al. 2008 , Floresco 2013 , Tobiansky et al. 2018 a ). Repeated sugar consumption affects DA release in the NAc ( Rada et al. 2005 , Avena et al. 2008

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Andrea Stojakovic Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California, USA
Mitochondrial Neurobiology and Therapeutics Laboratory, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

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Enma P Espinosa Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California, USA
Faculty of Medicine, School of Clinica Biochemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador (PUCE), Quito, Ecuador

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Osman T Farhad Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California, USA

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Kabirullah Lutfy Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California, USA

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( Hofstetter et al . 1986 , Perkins 1992 ), and that those effects are the result of the modulatory effect of nicotine on both metabolic processes and reward circuits ( Blendy et al . 2005 , Porter 2017 ). Studies performed in rodents have shown that

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Jeffrey Friedman Rockefeller University, Box 305, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA

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, enormous progress has been made in defining a set of overlapping neural circuits that control food intake and body weight. With time, these findings are likely to lead to a deeper understanding of how feeding behavior is controlled as well as our

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Marc Schneeberger Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain

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Ramon Gomis Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain

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Marc Claret Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
Diabetes and Obesity Research Laboratory, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain

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expenditure, contemporary, and lifestyle factors are the main causes of the prevailing obesity epidemics. The present review attempts to summarize current understanding of the anatomy, neurochemistry, functions, and interactions of relevant neural circuits

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Jennifer S ten Kulve Diabetes Center/Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Dick J Veltman Department of Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Liselotte van Bloemendaal Diabetes Center/Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Paul F C Groot Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Henricus G Ruhé Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Psychiatry, Groningen, The Netherlands

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Frederik Barkhof Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Michaela Diamant Diabetes Center/Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Richard G Ijzerman Diabetes Center/Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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addiction-related stimuli. Obese individuals showed increased responsiveness to viewing pictures of food, which could be regarded as the addictive substance, in areas involved in reward circuits (such as the insula, putamen, caudate nucleus and amygdala

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Daniel J Tobiansky Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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George V Kachkovski Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Reilly T Enos Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA

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Kim L Schmidt Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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E Angela Murphy Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA

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Stan B Floresco Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Kiran K Soma Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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effects on the brain and reward-seeking behaviours. There is mounting evidence that early life exposure to sucrose influences brain function and behaviour in adulthood ( Wiss et al. 2018 ). This effect could be a function of changes in the

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L van Bloemendaal
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J S ten Kulve
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S E la Fleur Diabetes Centre, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, VU University Medical Centre, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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R G Ijzerman
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M Diamant
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-homeostatic feeding behaviour is not regulated by hunger and satiety signals but rather by the rewarding properties and motivation related to foods, and involves reward, cognitive and emotional factors. Thus, corticolimbic circuits in humans (including the striatum

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