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Endocrinology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
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Pituitary Center Rotterdam, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Department of Internal Medicine and & Medical Specialties (DIMI) and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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Pituitary Center Rotterdam, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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treatment ( Pivonello et al . 2004 , de Bruin et al . 2009 b , Chinezu et al . 2014 ). Noteworthy, both SSTs and DRs belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which is known to be tightly regulated by β-arrestins in its
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signaling is their phosphorylation by the G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). These serine–threonine kinases are able to phosphorylate agonist-occupied receptors and promote their desensitization. The association of β-arrestins with GRK
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account for a mere ~50% of GLP-1-mediated insulin secretion in mouse islets and ~30% in human islets. Finally, it has recently been demonstrated that β-arrestin, an intracellular scaffolding protein canonically thought to facilitate ligand
Endocrinology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, School of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
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Endocrinology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
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either to lysosomes for further degradation or recycled back to the cell membrane ( Gatto & Hofland 2011 ). Receptor phosphorylation by GPCR kinases (GRKs) and β-arrestin (ARRB) recruitment to the cell membrane play a crucial role in the desensitization
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of the hormonal responses. Desensitization of GPCRs involves GPCR kinases (GRKs) that phosphorylate C-terminal serine and threonine residues of agonist-stimulated GPCRs and binding of the members of the β-arrestins ( Pitcher et al . 1998 , Oakley
Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE), Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Birmingham, UK
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Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE), Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Birmingham, UK
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Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE), Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Birmingham, UK
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is evidence that heterotetramers may occur. GHSR1a is understood to primarily signal via G q/11 pathways to activate Ca 2+ i pathways. This involves both constitutive and agonist-mediated signalling, and association between GHSR1a and β-arrestins
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, Baggio et al . 2004 , Jorgensen et al . 2007 , Pocai et al . 2009 , Kosinski et al . 2012 ). Despite being a full agonist at the human GLP1R, OXM was found to be a full agonist in recruiting β-arrestin 2 to the GCGR, but partial agonists in
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increases the degradation and ubiquitination of β-arrestin protein, followed by the decreased internalization of serotonin receptor, a kind of GPCR ( Luessen et al. 2019 ). β-Arrestin is a key player in the regulation of GPCR internalization; it controls
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G protein-coupled receptor kinase expression by β-adrenergic receptor stimulation and blockade . Circulation 98 1783 – 1789 . Iacovelli L Franchetti R Masini M De Blasi A 1996 GRK2 and β-arrestin1 as negative regulators of thyrotropin
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and β-arrestins are expressed in rat anterior pituitary cells, demonstrating that, at least in this species, pituitary cells have the intracellular machinery necessary for regulation of the V1b receptor by GRKs. Furthermore, recent evidence has shown