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reproduction, expanding the physiological repertoire of OCN in male testicular function. Does OCN influence the traditional hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis for its effect on male fertility? Although there is evidence suggesting a direct role for OCN
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GnRH and sex steroids play an important role in immune system modulation and development. GnRH and the GnRH receptor are produced locally by immune cells, suggesting an autocrine role for GnRH. Experimental studies show a stimulatory action of exogenous GnRH on the immune response. The immune actions of GnRH in vivo are, however, less well established. Oestrogen and androgen receptors are expressed in primary lymphoid organs and peripheral immune cells. Experimental data have established that oestrogens enhance the humoral immune response and may have an activating role in autoimmune disorders. Testosterone enhances suppressor T cell activity. Although there are some clinical studies consistent with these findings, the impact of sex steroids in autoimmune disease pathogenesis and the risk or benefits of their usage in normal and autoimmune-disordered patients remain to be elucidated. There are neither experimental nor clinical data evaluating functional GnRH-sex steroid interactions within the human immune system, and there is a paucity of data relating to GnRH analogues, hormone replacement therapy and oral contraceptive and androgen action in autoimmune diseases. However, a growing body of experimental evidence suggests that an extra-pituitary GnRH immune mechanism plays a role in the programming of the immune system. The implications of these findings in understanding immune function are discussed.
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Portacaval anastomosis (PCA) in the rat may be a useful experimental model for examining endocrine changes that occur during cirrhosis of the liver. A marked reduction in diet intake and body weight occurs in rats after establishing the shunt and studies were undertaken to determine the relationship of these effects to the testicular atrophy that also follows PCA. Control, sham-operated animals, experiencing a reduction in food intake similar to that of the animals with a PCA, showed reduced plasma levels of LH and testosterone but also exhibited a marked testicular response to LH. This was consistent with increased sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis to the negative feedback of gonadal steroids in chronically underfed animals. Male rats with a PCA exhibited similarly reduced levels of LH and testosterone, but showed poor secretory responses of the pituitary gland to LH releasing hormone (LH-RH) and of the testis to LH. Testicular atrophy and cessation of spermatogenesis occurred in the animals with a PCA. These results suggested that the effects of PCA on the pituitary-gonadal axis cannot simply be explained as a consequence of the restricted intake of diet. This was confirmed by the responses to castration. In both fed and underfed sham-operated rats, castration resulted in a rapid and sustained increase in plasma LH and both groups showed a marked LH secretory response to LH-RH. In contrast, in animals with a PCA castration had little effect on plasma LH and the pituitary response to LH-RH was still poor. The effects of PCA cannot be simply explained by impeded metabolism of gonadal steroids causing increased negative feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
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KG Badman MK McGowan BM Amber V Patel S Ghatei MA 2005 Kisspeptin-54 stimulates the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in human males . Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 90 6609 – 6615 doi:10.1210/jc.2005
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/4 months in dio2 − / − fish ( Fig. 3H ). Effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis To identify potential disturbances in the functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis, we measured the expression levels of
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Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Division of Endocrinology, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, The University of Chicago, 5841 South Maryland Avenue, MC 1027, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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of the interactions of leptin with the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Leptin stimulates POMC/CART and Glut neurons and inhibits AgRP/NPY and GABA neurons to modulate reproduction centrally. At the ovaries, leptin can have different effects
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and the mechanisms responsible for adrenarche have been the subject of considerable investigation. The participation of the adrenal gland in the maturation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (with the adrenal androgens contributing to
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Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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. Nemeroff CB Lamartiniere CA Mason GA Squibb RE Hong JS Bondy SC 1981 Marked reduction in gonadal steroid hormone levels in rats treated neonatally with monosodium L-glutamate: further evidence for disruption of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal
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DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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.1007/978-1-4614-6199-9_19 ) 10.1007/978-1-4614-6199-9_19 23550017 Corradi PF Corradi RB Greene LW 2016 Physiology of the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis in the male . Urologic Clinics of North America 43 151 – 162 . ( https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ucl.2016.01.001 ) 10
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– E919 . ( doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00346.2006 ) McGowan BM Stanley SA Donovan J Thompson EL Patterson M Semjonous NM Gardiner JV Murphy K Ghatei MA Bloom SR 2008 Relaxin-3 stimulates the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
