Abstract
In teleostean fishes the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis (HPT axis) and the hypothalamic–pituitary–interrenal axis (HPI axis) regulate the release of thyroid hormones (THs) and cortisol respectively. Since many actions of both hormones are involved in the regulation of metabolic processes, communication between both signal pathways can be anticipated. In this study, we describe central and peripheral sites for direct interaction between mediators of both neuroendocrine axes in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Despite suggestions in the literature that CRH is thyrotropic in some fish; we were not able to establish stimulatory effects of CRH on the expression of the pituitary TSHβ subunit gene. In preoptic area tissue incubated with 10−7 M thyroxine (T4) a 2.9-fold increase in the expression of CRH-binding protein (CRHBP) was observed. Thus, T4 could reduce the bioavailable hypothalamic crh via the up regulation of crhbp expression and hence down regulate the HPI axis. At the peripheral level, cortisol (10−6 M), ACTH (10−7 M), and α-MSH (10−7 M) stimulate the release of T4 from kidney and head kidney fragments, which contain all functional thyroid follicles in carp, by two- to fourfold. The substantiation of three pituitary thyrotropic factors, viz. TSH, ACTH, and α-MSH, in common carp, allows for an integration of central thyrotropic signals. Clearly, two sites for interaction between the HPT axis, the HPI axis, and α-MSH are present in common carp. These interactions may be key to the proper regulation of general metabolism in this fish.
Introduction
Thyroid hormones (THs) and corticosteroids are major endocrine signals that are involved in the regulation of fundamental and basic physiological processes in vertebrates. The action of THs is pleiotropic and often permissive, but generally contributes to the regulation of growth, metabolism, development, and metamorphosis (Blanton & Specker 2007). Glucocorticosteroids are considered to be prime stress hormones that govern the stress response through the redistribution of energy toward processes required for coping with the stressor (Wendelaar Bonga 1997). Because of the significance of THs and corticosteroids in the regulation of metabolic processes, we postulate that a bidirectional communication between these endocrine systems is a necessity for the integration and proper functioning of either system.
In teleostean fishes, the THs thyroxine (T4, 3,5,3′5′-tetra-iodothyronine) and T3 (3,5,3′-triiodothyronine) are the end products of the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis where hypothalamic TRH stimulates the release of pituitary TSH, which stimulates the release of THs. Similarly, the hypothalamic–pituitary–interrenal (HPI) axis controls the release of cortisol from the interrenal cells in the head kidney, via hypothalamic CRH and pituitary ACTH. The hypothalamic and pituitary components of both axes are inhibited through negative feedback by their respective end products. The multilevel control of TH and cortisol release allows for potential multiple sites of interaction between both endocrine systems.
Interactions between the HPT and HPI axes have been described in teleostean fishes. Long-term and short-term exposure to cortisol or dexamethasone resulted in decreased levels of plasma THs in several fish species (Redding et al. 1984, 1986, Brown et al. 1991, Walpita et al. 2007). These decreased hormone levels were associated with either increased clearance of plasma THs (Redding et al. 1986) or changes in the activity and expression of deiodinases (Walpita et al. 2007). Stimulatory effects of cortisol on the HPT axis have also been suggested in teleost fish. In brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) long-term exposure to cortisol increased the hepatic conversion of T4 to T3 (Vijayan et al. 1988) and in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) cortisol augmented the effects of THs on the resorption of the dorsal fin ray (de Jesus et al. 1990). Experimental data on the effects of THs on the HPI axis in teleosts are scarce. In pre- and post-smolt coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), thyroxine treatment resulted in increased and decreased sensitivity of the head kidney to ACTH respectively (Young & Lin 1988).
In several species from all non-mammalian vertebrate classes, CRH does not only stimulate the release of ACTH, but also that of tsh (De Groef et al. 2006). Indeed, in common carp (Cyprinus carpio), CRH has been suggested to exhibit thyrotropic activity. In this species, TRH does not stimulate the release of TSH from cultured pituitary cells (Kagabu et al. 1998). Moreover, experimental treatment with thyroxine resulted in a marked hypocortisolemia in carp, which was accompanied by an increased mRNA expression of CRH-binding protein (CRHBP) in the preoptic area and unchanged levels of CRH and prepro-TRH mRNA (Geven et al. 2006). It appears that, in common carp, not TRH but CRH is controlling the activity of the thyroid gland. Because of its corticotropic and putative thyrotropic activity, CRH neurons may constitute a central site for the communication between the HPT and the HPI axis in common carp.
An investigation on the location of the thyroid gland in common carp revealed another putative site for the integration of the HPT and the HPI axes signals. Whereas in most fishes the thyroid follicles are located in the subpharyngeal region, surrounding the ventral aorta, in common carp all functional thyroid follicles, as characterized by iodine uptake and TSH-mediated T4 release, are scattered throughout the kidney and head kidney (Geven et al. 2007). The close juxtaposition in the head kidney of TH-producing follicles to cortisol-producing interrenal cells strongly hints at a paracrine interaction between both endocrine tissues.
Besides the apparent communication between HPT and HPI axes signals in common carp, a third endocrine signal appears to be involved in these axes. Plasma levels of α-MSH are increased in hyperthyroid and stressed carp (Metz et al. 2005, Geven et al. 2006), the exact physiological role of which still is unclear. We hypothesize that in common carp the preoptic area and the head kidney represent a central and a peripheral site respectively, for the integration of signals of the HPT and the HPI axis. In this study, we investigated this hypothesis by performing in vitro incubations of preoptic area tissues, pituitary glands, and renal tissues with several mediators of both neuroendocrine systems, including α-MSH.
Materials and Methods
Animals
Common carp (C. carpio), hereafter called carp, of the all male E4×R3R8 isogenic strain (Bongers et al. 1998) were obtained from the Department of Fish Culture and Fisheries of Wageningen University (The Netherlands). Fish were kept in 140-l tanks with aerated, circulating, city of Nijmegen tap water, at a photoperiod of 16h light:8h darkness at 23 °C. Carp were fed Trouvit dry food pellets (Trouw Nutrition International, Putten, The Netherlands) once daily at a ration of 1.5% of the estimated body weight. Before collection of tissues, fish were deeply anesthetized with 0.1% (v/v) 2-phenoxyethanol and killed by spinal transection. Animal handling followed approved university guidelines.
Static incubation of preoptic area and pituitary gland
The pituitary gland and the preoptic area containing the nucleus preopticus (NPO) were dissected as described by Metz et al. (2006b). The preoptic areas were diced in ∼2 mm3 sized fragments, while the pituitary glands were kept intact. The quality of dissection was assured by stereomicroscopic analysis. The preoptic area fragments and pituitary glands were immediately transferred to 1 ml ice-cold Leibovitz's L-15 medium (Invitrogen) containing 100 μg/ml kanamycin (Invitrogen), and antibiotic/antimycotic (1×) (Invitrogen). After 1 h, the preoptic area fragments were carefully transferred to 1 ml fresh L-15 medium supplemented with T4 (at concentrations of 10−8 and 10−7 M respectively), while the pituitary glands were transferred to 1 ml fresh L-15 medium supplemented with T4 (10−8 and 10−7 M), ovine (O) CRH (10−7 M), or human TRH (10−7 M), L-15 medium of controls did not receive any supplement. Thyroxine, oCRH, and hTRH were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co.
Preoptic area fragments and the pituitary glands were incubated for periods as indicated in the legends to the figures. All tissues were incubated at 22 °C, while continuously shaking (200 r.p.m). Each medium was replaced at 1, 6, 12, and 24 h after the start of incubation. After the incubation, the preoptic area fragments and pituitary glands were immediately stored at −80 °C until further processing.
RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis
To extract total RNA, the preoptic area fragments and the pituitary glands were homogenized in 500 μl TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) by ultrasonification. Following treatment with DNase, 1 μg RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA in a 20 μl reaction mixture containing 300 ng random primers, 0.5 mM dNTPs, 10 mM dithiothreitol, 10 U RNase Inhibitor, and 200 U Superscript II Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen) for 50 min at 37 °C and stored at −20 °C.
Real-time quantitative PCR
Since homologous antibodies against the peptides we wished to quantify are not available for carp, and heterologous antibodies are validated for qualitative purposes only, we measured the expression of crh, prepro-trh (pp-trh), urotensin I (uts1), and crhbp mRNA in the preoptic area and of TSHβ (tshb) subunit, proopiomelanocortin (pomc), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (pcsk1), and prolactin (prl) mRNA in pituitary gland by real-time quantitative PCR (RQ-PCR). In general, cDNA was diluted ten times, but a portion of pituitary gland cDNA was diluted 500 times to measure pomc gene expression. Totally 5 μl cDNA was used in a 25 μl reaction mixture consisting of 12.5 μl Sybr Green Master Mix (PE Applied Biosystems Benelux, Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel, The Netherlands), and 3 μl of each primer (600 nM final concentration). The primer sets used for PCR are shown in Table 1. The RQ-PCR was performed on a GeneAmp 5700 Sequence Detection System (PE Applied Biosystems). The reaction mixture was incubated for 10 min at 95 °C, followed by 40 cycles of 15 s denaturation at 95 °C and 1 min annealing and extension at 60 °C. Analysis of dissociation plots confirmed the specificity of the PCRs. Cycle threshold values were determined from amplification curves. The expression of genes of interest was calculated relative to 40S ribosomal protein S11 mRNA expression.
Primer sequences with corresponding GenBank accession numbers. Open reading frame positions are relative to the start codon
| Accession number | Primer | Open reading frame position | Sequence 5′→3′ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gene product | ||||
| crh | AJ317955 | qcrh-fw | 162–181 | CATCCGGCTCGGTAACAGAA |
| qcrh-rv | 277–257 | CCAACAGACGCTGCGTTAACT | ||
| pp-trh | AB179818 | qtrh-fw | 950–969 | TTACCGGTCGCTTTCACGTT |
| qtrh-rv | 1079–1060 | AGCTGTGTGCCAAACCAAAC | ||
| uts1 | M11671 | quts1-fw | -15–5 | GCACCTGTGTCCAGCATGAA |
| quts1-rv | 69–52 | GGTGCTCAGCGGGATGTG | ||
| crhbp | AJ490880 | qcrhbp-fw | 680–701 | ACAATGATCTCAAGCGGTCCAT |
| qcrhbp-rv | 746–727 | CCACCCAGAAGCTCGACAAA | ||
| tshb | AB003585 | qtshb-fw | 230–249 | AGTACCGAACGGCCATCTTG |
| qtshb-rv | 297–278 | TGCCACCGGATAGGTGAAGT | ||
| pomc | Y14618 | qpomc-fw | 40–60 | TTGGCTCTGGCTGTTCTGTGT |
| qpomc-rv | 176–152 | TCATCTGTCAGATCAGACCTGCATA | ||
| pcsk1 | AM236095 | qpcsk1-fw | 1300–1319 | GCTGGTTTGATGGTCAACAG |
| qpcsk1-rv | 1381–1361 | GACTTTGGGATCAGCCAGAT | ||
| β-actin | M24113 | qact-fw | 342–366 | CAACAGGGAAAAGATGACACAGATC |
| qact-rv | 424–406 | GGGACAGCACAGCCTGGAT | ||
| 40S | AB012087 | q40S-fw | 365–384 | CCGTGGGTGACATCGTTACA |
| q40S-rv | 433–410 | TCAGGACATTGAACCTCACTGTCT | ||
Static incubation of kidney and head kidney
Head kidneys and kidney tissue were removed from the animal, diced into ∼ 2 mm3 sized fragments and immediately placed in appropriate volume of ice-cold Leibovitz's L-15 medium (Invitrogen) containing 100 μg/ml kanamycin (Invitrogen) and antibiotic/antimycotic (1×) (Invitrogen). After 1 h, the head kidney and kidney fragments were carefully transferred to 2 ml fresh L-15 medium supplemented with cortisol (at concentrations of 10−7 and 10−6 M respectively) human ACTH (10−7 M) or monoacetyl α-MSH (10−7 M), while control incubations did not receive any supplement. Cortisol, hACTH, and α-MSH were from Sigma Chemical Co.
Tissues were incubated for 24 h at 22 °C, while continuously shaking (200 r.p.m.), after which the 2 ml incubation medium was separated from the tissue by centrifugation (4 °C, 1000 g, 15 min) and reduced to 0.5 ml by vacuum drying. The incubation medium was applied to a Sephadex LH-20 column to isolate the THs and to remove salts (Mol & Visser 1985). In short, glass pipettes were filled with 1 ml Sephadex LH-20 (Amersham Biosciences) suspension in water (10% w/v) and equilibrated with 3 volumes of 1 ml 0.1 M HCl. Samples were acidified with an equal volume of 1 M HCl and loaded on to the column. The samples were then eluted from the column with 5 volumes of 1 ml 0.1 M HCl for the removal of ions, 4 volumes of 1 ml H2O to neutralize the column, and 3 volumes of 1 ml 0.1 M NH3/EtOH to collect THs. The fractions containing THs were vacuum dried and reconstituted in 60 μl 50 mM sodium barbitone/0.1% BSA buffer (pH 8.6). Total thyroxine was measured in duplicate with a total T4 ELISA (Human Gesellschaft für Biochemica und Diagnostica GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany) according to the manufacturer's instruction. Standards were prepared in the same barbitone buffer as the samples were. The intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients of variation for the tT4 ELISA reported by the manufacturer are 4.2 and 3.3% respectively. The reported cross reactivity of the ovine anti-T4 antibody to D-T4 is 98% (the reactivity to L-T4 is set at 100% as a reference), and to L-T3 and D-T3 is 3 and 1.5% respectively. Cross-reactivities of the antibody to diiodothyronine, diiodotyrosine, and iodotyrosine are <0.01%. The reported sensitivity of the tT4 ELISA is 4 ng/ml T4. Protein content of the incubated tissues was determined by Bio-Rad protein assay (Bio-Rad) using BSA as reference.
Statistical analysis
All data are represented as mean values±s.d. The number of different preparations (n) is given in parentheses. Differences between groups were assessed with Student's parametric t-test for unpaired observations, or Mann–Whitney's non-parametric U-test, where appropriate. Statistical significance was accepted at P<0.05 (two-tailed), probabilities are indicated by asterisks (*, P<0.05; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001).
Results
Effects of CRH and TRH on pituitary tshb gene expression
Thyroxine, at concentrations of 10−8 and 10−7 M, significantly down regulated the expression of tshb subunit mRNA by 35% (P=0.01) and 45% (P=0.02) compared with control incubations respectively (Fig. 1A), which demonstrated the viability of the pituitary gland preparation. Neither TRH (10−7 M) nor CRH (10−7 M) altered tshb subunit gene expression (Fig. 1B and C). Incubation of pituitary glands with TRH (10−7 M) increased the expression of pomc (P=0.04) and pcsk1 (P=0.002) 1.7- and 2.3-fold respectively (Fig. 2D), which confirmed the bioactivity of TRH. The integrity and bioactivity of the CRH preparation used was confirmed in our laboratory by mass spectrometry and the stimulatory action on the release of ACTH and α-MSH from carp pituitary glands in vitro (Metz et al. 2004, van den Burg et al. 2005).
Relative mRNA expression levels of pituitary tshb subunit upon (A) 36 h incubation with T4 (10−8 M, n=6 and 10−7 M, n=5) and (B) 6, 12, 24, and 36 h incubation with TRH (10−7 M, n=4) and (C) CRH (10−7 M, n=6). Relative mRNA expression of pituitary pomc and pcsk1 upon (D) 6 h incubation with TRH (10−7 M, n=4).
Citation: Journal of Endocrinology 200, 1; 10.1677/JOE-08-0410
Relative mRNA expression levels of (A) crh, (B) prepro-trh, (C) uts1 and (D) crhbp (D) in hypothalamic tissue (n=6) incubated for 36 h with 10−8 M and 10−7 M T4.
Citation: Journal of Endocrinology 200, 1; 10.1677/JOE-08-0410
Effects of T4 on gene expression in the preoptic area
Thyroxine, at 10−7 M, significantly increased the expression of crh, prepro-trh, and crhbp in the preoptic area 4.6- (P=0.0001), 2.9- (P=0.002), and 2.1-fold (P=0.04) respectively (Fig. 2). The expression of uts1 remained unchanged (Fig. 2D). Incubation with 10−8 M T4 had no statistically significant effects on the expression of any of the genes tested (Fig. 2).
Effects of cortisol, ACTH and α-MSH on the release of T4 from renal tissues
Cortisol at 10−6 M, but not at 10−7 M, stimulated the release of T4 from head kidney (P=0.04) and kidney tissue (P=0.01) 3.5-fold (Fig. 3). ACTH and α-MSH (both at 10−7 M) increased the release of T4 from head kidney and kidney tissue two- to four-fold (Fig. 3). Basal and stimulated T4-secretion from the head kidney, overall, was ten times lower than that of the kidney (Fig. 3).
Release of T4 from head kidney and kidney tissue (n=6–7) incubated for 24 h with cortisol (10−7 and 10−6 M), ACTH (10−7 M) and α-MSH (10−7 M, n=3).
Citation: Journal of Endocrinology 200, 1; 10.1677/JOE-08-0410
Discussion
We demonstrate here that the NPO and renal tissues are putative sites for interaction between mediators of the HPT- and the HPI axis in carp. Thyroxine affects the CRH system in the preoptic area. Peripherally, cortisol and ACTH both stimulate the release of THs from renal tissues, viz. the head kidney and kidney.
Despite indications that preoptic CRH may be involved in the regulation of the HPT axis in some fish (Kagabu et al. 1998, Geven et al. 2006, De Groef et al. 2006), no effect of CRH on the expression of carp pituitary tshb subunit could be demonstrated in vitro. The absence of a thyrotropic action of preoptic CRH can also be inferred from experimental results obtained in vivo. When carp were exposed to a 24 h confinement stressor, the HPI axis was markedly activated, as exemplified by an increased expression of crh mRNA in the preoptic area (Huising et al. 2004). However, this increase was not accompanied by increased expression of pituitary tshb subunit, which remained unaffected in these animals (Dr J R Metz, personal communication). Similarly, TRH did not alter the expression of tshb subunit gene in vitro, corroborating the results of Kagabu et al. (1998). Taken together, these data provide no evidence for CRH and TRH as a hypothalamic thyrotropic factor in carp. However, the thyroid-stimulating properties of ACTH and α-MSH in carp may still confer a thyrotropic action to CRH and TRH. The present study focused on TSH as the pituitary thyroid-stimulating factor in carp (Geven et al. 2006), but the identification of ACTH and α-MSH as two new putative pituitary thyroid-stimulating factors re-establishes CRH and TRH as potential hypothalamic thyrotropic factors, since the release of ACTH and α-MSH in carp is stimulated by CRH and TRH (van den Burg et al. 2003, 2005, Metz et al. 2004). The identification of more than one hypothalamic thyrotropic and pituitary thyroid-stimulating factor in carp, clearly points to an integration of multiple endocrine signals for the control of the thyroid gland activity in teleostean fishes.
THs can modulate, at a central level, the HPI axis in carp. The expression of preoptic crh mRNA is markedly increased upon exposure to T4 in vitro, although this effect could not be measured in vivo in hyperthyroid carp that were treated with T4. Here, the repeated injection of T4 produced a pronounced down regulation of the HPI axis as evidenced by a decreased level of plasma cortisol. The expression of preoptic crh mRNA however, remained unaffected (Geven et al. 2006). In situ, the preoptic CRH neuron is controlled by a multitude of stimulatory and inhibitory signals (Itoi et al. 1998, Pisarska et al. 2001). The different expression of crh upon T4 exposure in vitro and in vivo which we observed can be explained by the fact that the denervated preoptic area in vitro does not receive efferent inhibitory signals, viz. glucocorticoids, norepinephrine, GABA, β-endorphin, dynorphin, somatostatin, galanin, and substance P (ibid). Our results indicate that the control of the preoptic CRH neurons by T4 is modulated by other factors.
A consistent effect of T4 on the CRH system in carp is the stimulation of the expression of crhbp mRNA in vitro as well as in hyperthyroid carp in vivo (Geven et al. 2006). Hypothalamic CRHBP binds CRH (and uts1) with a higher affinity than the type 1 crh receptor, which reduces the bioavailability of CRH and, subsequently, the CRH-induced release of pituitary ACTH (Potter et al. 1991, Cortright et al. 1995, Westphal & Seasholtz 2006). Also in carp CRHBP appears to be a functional modulator of hypophysiotropic CRH, since the expression of preoptic area crhbp mRNA is elevated upon a 24 h restraint stressor and CRHBP is colocalized in CRH immunoreactive neurons projecting from the hypothalamus to pituitary corticotropes (Huising et al. 2004). The extent to which the T4-induced increase in crhbp mRNA expression levels in vitro translates into increased functional protein concentrations in the hypothalamus in situ is difficult to estimate and awaits the development of a quantitative assay for CRHBP protein. Still, our data suggests that CRHBP from the preoptic area, where expression is T4-sensitive in vitro as well as in vivo, may fulfill a role as a central messenger that allows for the interaction of the HPT axis with the HPI axis in carp.
We also identified a peripheral site for the interaction between the HPT and the HPI axes: the head kidney and kidney. We already established that short- and long-term incubation with THs have no effect on the release of cortisol from head kidney fragments (Geven et al. 2006). Conversely, exposure of head kidney and kidney fragments to cortisol and ACTH stimulated the release of T4 from these tissues. The TH-releasing properties of cortisol and ACTH are consistent with the expression of their specific receptors, i.e. the glucocorticoid receptor and the type 2 melanocortin receptor respectively, in head kidney as well as kidney (Metz et al. 2005, Stolte et al. 2008).
Although cortisol has been shown to stimulate iodide uptake and thyroglobulin synthesis in synergy with TSH in several mammalian thyroid cell cultures (Roger & Dumont 1983, Gérard et al. 1989, Becks et al. 1992, Takiyama et al. 1994), we describe here a direct and independent effect of cortisol on the thyroid gland of a teleost. Since the kidney is devoid of interrenal cells and a local cortisol-mediated effect therefore is not possible, we conclude that ACTH has a direct effect on the release of T4 in the kidney. Such a direct effect of ACTH could also apply to the head kidney. However, the ACTH-induced release of T4 may also represent a paracrine effect of endogenous cortisol released upon stimulation by ACTH, as exogenous cortisol mimicked the effect of ACTH on the release of T4 from head kidney tissue. Studies into the cellular localization of the type 2 melanocortin receptor in head kidney tissue may reveal the presence of this receptor in thyrocytes, and thus can provide evidence for a direct mode of action of ACTH.
Another novel finding of this study is that the pituitary POMC-derived hormone α-MSH also has thyroid-stimulating properties in carp. The effect of α-MSH in the kidney is consistent with the expression of type 5 melanocortin receptor (Metz et al. 2005). Although the MC5R is not expressed in the head kidney of carp, the thyroid-stimulating effect of α-MSH may be mediated by other melanocortin receptors, for instance, the expression of the type 4 melanocortin receptor has been reported in the head kidney of rainbow trout and Japanese pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes; Haitina et al. 2004, Klovins et al. 2004). In rat, binding of a specific analog for α-MSH was observed in the thyroid gland, indicating a regulatory role for α-MSH on thyroid gland metabolism in mammals (Tatro & Reichlin 1987).
We have found that THs stimulate the release of α-MSH in carp in vivo. Hyperthyroid carp have plasma levels of α-MSH that are increased by 30%, which are accompanied by increased mRNA expression levels of pituitary pars distalis pomc and pcsk1 (Geven et al. 2006). In teleost fish, including carp, the release of pituitary α-MSH is mainly attributed to TRH (Lamers et al. 1994, van den Burg et al. 2003, 2005). The in vitro stimulation of trh expression by T4, and the in vitro stimulation of pomc and pcsk1 expression by TRH observed in this study, is commensurate to the endocrine cascade by which THs control the release of α-MSH in carp.
The widespread distribution of melanocortin receptors in fish illustrates the pleiotropic functions for α-MSH, which includes the regulation of food intake and metabolism (Metz et al. 2006a). The intracerebroventricular injection of [Nle4, D-Phe7]- α-MSH, an α-MSH agonist, inhibited food intake in goldfish (Carassius auratus; Cerdá-Reverter et al. 2003) and peripherally, α-MSH exhibited lipolytic effects in hepatocytes of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss; Yada et al. 2000, 2002). The concerted actions of THs, cortisol, and α-MSH on the regulation of metabolic processes may form the basis for the integration of these signals in carp.
In conclusion, this study identifies a central and a peripheral site in carp for the communication between the interrenal axis and the thyroid axis and, additionally, α-MSH as a thyroid-stimulating factor. Centrally, T4 can inhibit the HPI axis via CRHBP in the preoptic area. Peripherally, cortisol and ACTH stimulate the release of T4 from renal tissues, as does α-MSH. The intimate interrelationships between these neuroendocrine systems are pivotal for the regulation of general metabolism.
Declaration of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sector.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Bas Oude Ophuis, BSc, Juriaan Metz, PhD, and Marnix Gorissen, MSc for technical assistance and to Mr Tom Spanings for excellent animal care and fish husbandry.
References
Becks GP, Buckingham DK, Wang JF, Phillips ID & Hill DJ 1992 Regulation of thyroid hormone synthesis in cultured ovine thyroid follicles. Endocrinology 130 2789–2794.
Blanton ML & Specker JL 2007 The hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis in fish and its role in fish development and reproduction. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 37 97–115.
Bongers ABJ, Sukkel M, Gort G, Komen J & Richter CJJ 1998 Development and use of genetically uniform strains of common carp in experimental animal research. Laboratory Animals 32 349–363.
Brown SB, MacLatchy DL, Hara TJ & Eales JG 1991 Effects of cortisol on aspects of 3,5,3′-triiodo-l-thyronine metabolism in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). General and Comparative Endocrinology 81 207–216.
van den Burg EH, Metz JR, Ross HA, Darras VM, Wendelaar Bonga SE & Flik G 2003 Temperature-induced changes in thyrotropin-releasing hormone sensitivity in carp melanotropes. Neuroendocrinology 77 15–23.
van den Burg EH, Metz JR, Spanings FAT, Wendelaar Bonga SE & Flik G 2005 Plasma α-MSH and acetylated β-endorphin levels following stress vary according to CRH sensitivity of the pituitary melanotropes in common carp, Cyprinus carpio. General and Comparative Endocrinology 140 210–221.
Cerdá-Reverter JM, Schiöth HB & Peter RE 2003 The central melanocortin system regulates food intake in goldfish. Regulatory Peptides 115 101–113.
Cortright DN, Nicoletti A & Seasholtz AF 1995 Molecular and biochemical characterization of the mouse brain corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 111 147–157.
Gérard CM, Roger PP & Dumont JE 1989 Thyroglobulin gene expression as a differentiation marker in primary cultures of calf thyroid cells. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 61 23–35.
Geven EJW, Verkaar F, Flik G & Klaren PHM 2006 Experimental hyperthyroidism and central mediators of stress axis and thyroid axis activity in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L). Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 37 443–452.
Geven EJW, Nguyen NK, van den Boogaart M, Spanings FAT, Flik G & Klaren PHM 2007 Comparative thyroidology: thyroid gland location and iodothyronine dynamics in Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus Peters) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio L). Journal of Experimental Biology 210 4005–4015.
De Groef B, Van der Geyten S, Darras VM & Kühn ER 2006 Role of corticotropin-releasing hormone as a thyrotropin-releasing factor in non-mammalian vertebrates. General and Comparative Endocrinology 146 62–68.
Haitina T, Klovins J, Andersson J, Fredriksson R, Lagerström MC, Larhammer D, Larson ET & Schiöth HB 2004 Cloning, tissue distribution, pharmacology and three-dimensional modelling of melanocortin receptors 4 and 5 in rainbow trout suggest close evolutionary relationship of these subtypes. Biochemical Journal 380 475–486.
Huising MO, Metz JR, van Schooten C, Taverne-Thiele AJ, Hermsen T, Verburg-van Kemenade BML & Flik G 2004 Structural characterisation of a cyprinid (Cyprinus carpio L.) CRH, CRH-BP and CRH-R1, and the role of these proteins in the acute stress response. Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 32 627–648.
Itoi K, Seasholtz AF & Watson SJ 1998 Cellular and extracellular regulatory mechanisms of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons. Endocrine Journal 45 13–33.
de Jesus EG, Inui Y & Hirano T 1990 Cortisol enhances the stimulating action of thyroid hormones on dorsal fin-ray resorption of flounder larvae in vitro. General and Comparative Endocrinology 79 167–173.
Kagabu Y, Mishiba T, Okino T & Yanagisawa T 1998 Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and its metabolites, Cyclo(His-Pro) and TRH-OH, on growth hormone and prolactin synthesis in primary cultured pituitary cells of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. General and Comparative Endocrinology 111 395–403.
Klovins J, Haitina T, Fridmanis D, Kilianova Z, Kapa I, Fredriksson R, Gallo-Payet N & Schiöth HB 2004 The melanocortin system in Fugu: determination of POMC/AGRP/MCR gene repertoire and synteny, as well as pharmacology and anatomical distribution of the MCRs. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 563–579.
Lamers AE, Flik G & Wendelaar Bonga SE 1994 A specific role for TRH in release of diacetyl α-MSH in tilapia stressed by acid water. American Journal of Physiology 267 R1302–R1308.
Metz JR, Huising MO, Meek J, Taverne-Thiele AJ, Wendelaar Bonga SE & Flik G 2004 Localization, expression and control of adrenocorticotropic hormone in the nucleus preopticus and pituitary gland of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L). Journal of Endocrinology 182 23–31.
Metz JR, Geven EJW, van den Burg EH & Flik G 2005 ACTH, α-MSH, and control of cortisol release: cloning, sequencing, and functional expression of the melanocortin-2 and melanocortin-5 receptor in Cyprinus carpio. American Journal of Physiology 289 R814–R826.
Metz JR, Peters JJM & Flik G 2006a Molecular biology and physiology of the melanocortin system in fish: a review. General and Comparative Endocrinology 148 150–162.
Metz JR, Huising MO, Leon K, Verburg-van Kemenade BML & Flik G 2006b Central and peripheral interleukin-1β and interleukin-1 receptor I expression and their role in the acute stress response of common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. Journal of Endocrinology 191 25–35.
Mol JA & Visser TJ 1985 Synthesis and some properties of sulfate esters and sulfamates of iodothyronines. Endocrinology 117 1–7.
Pisarska M, Mulchahey JJ, Sheriff S, Geracioti TD & Kasckow JW 2001 Regulation of corticotropin-releasing hormone in vitro. Peptides 22 705–712.
Potter E, Behan DP, Fischer WH, Linton EA, Lowry PJ & Vale WW 1991 Cloning and characterization of the cDNAs for human and rat corticotropin releasing factor-binding proteins. Nature 349 423–426.
Redding JM, Schreck CB, Birks EK & Ewing RD 1984 Cortisol and its effects on plasma thyroid hormone and electrolyte concentrations in fresh water and during seawater acclimation in yearling coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. General and Comparative Endocrinology 56 146–155.
Redding JM, deLuze A, Leloup-Hatey J & Leloup J 1986 Suppression of plasma thyroid hormone concentrations by cortisol in the European eel Anguilla anguilla. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 83 409–413.
Roger PP & Dumont JE 1983 Thyrotrophin and the differential expression of proliferation and differentiation in dog thyroid cells in primary culture. Journal of Endocrinology 96 241–249.
Stolte EH, Nabuurs SB, Bury NR, Sturm A, Flik G, Savelkoul HFJ & Verburg-van Kemenade BML 1983 Stress and innate immunity in carp: corticosteroid receptors and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Molecular Endocrinology 46 70–79.
Takiyama Y, Tanaka H, Takiyama Y & Makino I 1994 The effects of hydrocortisone and RU486 (mifepristone) on iodide uptake in porcine thyroid cells in primary culture. Endocrinology 135 1972–1979.
Tatro JB & Reichlin S 1987 Specific receptors for alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone are widely distributed in tissues of rodents. Endocrinology 121 1900–1907.
Vijayan MM, Flett PA & Leatherland JF 1988 Effect of cortisol on the in vitro hepatic conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchill). General and Comparative Endocrinology 70 312–318.
Walpita CN, Grommen SVH, Darras VM & Van der Geyten S 2007 The influence of stress on thyroid hormone production and peripheral deiodination in the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). General and Comparative Endocrinology 150 18–25.
Wendelaar Bonga SE 1997 The stress response in fish. Physiological Reviews 77 591–625.
Westphal NJ & Seasholtz AF 2006 CRH-BP: the regulation and function of a phylogenetically conserved binding protein. Frontiers in Bioscience 11 1878–1891.
Yada T, Azuma T, Takahashi A, Suzuki Y & Hirose S 2000 Effects of desacetyl-α-MSH on lipid mobilization in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Zoological Science 17 1123–1127.
Yada T, Moriyama S, Suzuki Y, Azuma T, Takahashi A, Hirose S & Naito N 2002 Relationships between obesity and metabolic hormones in the ‘cobalt’ variant of rainbow trout. General and Comparative Endocrinology 128 36–43.
Young G & Lin RJ 1988 Response of the interrenal to adrenocorticotropic hormone after short-term thyroxine treatment of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Journal of Experimental Zoology 245 53–58.
